1 ] Applied linguistics

Is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, computer science, anthropology, and sociology. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policies, stylistics, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation.

History
The tradition of applied linguistics established itself in part as a response to the narrowing of focus in linguistics with the advent in the late 1950s of generative linguistics, and has always maintained a socially accountable role, demonstrated by its central interest in language problems. Although the field of applied linguistics started from Europe and the United States, the field rapidly flourished in the international context. Applied linguistics first concerned itself with principles and practices on the basis of linguistics. In the early days, applied linguistics was thought as linguistics-applied at least from the outside of the field. In the 1960s, however, applied linguistics was expanded to include language assessment, language policy, and second language acquisition. As early as the 1970s, applied linguistics became a problem-driven field rather than theoretical linguistics. Applied linguistics also included solution of language-related problems in the real world. By the 1990s, applied linguistics has broadened including critical studies and multilingualism. Research of applied linguistics was shifted to "the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue."

Selected Subfields of Applied Linguistics Clinical linguistics

( Applied Linguistics )

It is a sub-discipline of linguistics which involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of SpeechLanguage Pathology. Clinical linguistics, a branch of applied linguistics, is the use of linguistics to describe, analyze, and treat language disabilities. The study of linguistic aspect of communication disorders is of relevance to a broader understanding of language and linguistic theory. Practitioners of clinical linguistics typically work in Speech-Language Pathology departments or linguistics departments. They conduct research with the aims of improving the assessment, treatment, and analysis of disordered speech/language, and offering insights to formal linguistic theories.
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Computational linguistics

( Applied Linguistics )

Is an interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of linguistics. Traditionally, computational linguistics was usually performed by computer scientists who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a natural language. Computational linguists often work as members of interdisciplinary teams, including linguists (specifically trained in linguistics), language experts (persons with some level of ability in the languages relevant to a given project), and computer scientists. In general, computational linguistics draws upon the involvement of linguists, computer scientists, experts in artificial intelligence, mathematicians, logicians, philosophers, cognitive scientists, cognitive psychologists, psycholinguists, anthropologists and neuroscientists, among others. Computational linguistics has applied and theoretical components, where theoretical computational linguistics takes up issues in theoretical linguistics and cognitive science and applied computational linguistics focuses on the practical outcome of modelling human language use. When machine translation (also known as mechanical translation) failed to yield accurate translations right away, automated processing of human languages was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing algorithms and software for intelligently processing language data. When artificial intelligence came into existence in the 1960s, the field of computational linguistics became that sub-division of artificial intelligence dealing with human-level comprehension and production of natural languages. In order to translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the grammar of both languages, including both morphology (the grammar of word forms) and syntax (the grammar of sentence structure). In order to understand syntax, one had to also understand the semantics and the lexicon (or 'vocabulary'), and even to understand something of the pragmatics of language use. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process natural languages using computers.

Developmental linguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. It involves research into the different stages in language acquisition, language retention, and language loss in both first and second languages, in addition to the area of bilingualism.

Evolutionary linguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the scientific study of the origins and development of language by the human species.

Neurolinguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methodology and theory from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, neurobiology, communication disorders, neuropsychology, and computer science. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much
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work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.
Interaction with other fields

Neurolinguistics is closely related to the field of psycholinguistics, which seeks to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms of language by employing the traditional techniques of experimental psychology; today, psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic theories often inform one another, and there is much collaboration between the two fields. Subfield Phonetics Description the study of speech sounds the study of how sounds are organized in a language the study of how words are structured and stored in the mental lexicon the study of how multiple-word utterances are constructed the study of how meaning is encoded in language Research questions in neurolinguistics how the brain extracts speech sounds from an acoustic signal, how the brain separates speech sounds from background noise how the phonological system of a particular language is represented in the brain how the brain stores and accesses words that a person knows

Phonology Morphology and lexicology Syntax Semantics

How the brain combines words into constituents and sentences; how structural and semantic information is used in understanding sentences

Psycholinguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language.

Forensic linguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of applied linguistics. There are principally three areas of application for linguists working in forensic contexts - understanding language of the written law, understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes and the provision of linguistic evidence.

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Internet linguistics ( Applied Linguistics )

Is a sub-domain of linguistics advocated by David Crystal. It studies new language styles and forms that have arisen under the influence of the Internet and other New Media, such as Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. Since the beginning of Human-computer interaction (HCI) leading to computer-mediated communication (CMC) and Internet-mediated communication (IMC), experts have acknowledged that linguistics has a contributing role in it, in terms of web interface and usability. Studying the emerging language on the Internet can help improve conceptual organization, translation and web usability. This will benefit both linguists and web users. The study of Internet linguistics can be effectively done through 4 main perspectives; sociolinguistics, education, stylistics and applied. Further dimensions have developed as a result of further technological advancements which include the development of the Web as Corpus and the spread and influence of the stylistic variations brought forth by the spread of the Internet, through the Mass Media and Literary Works. In view of the increasing number of users connected to the Internet, the linguistics future of the Internet remains to be determined as new computer-mediated technologies continues to emerge and people adapt their languages to suit these new mediums. The Internet continues to play a significant role in both encouraging as well as diverting attention away from the usage of languages.

Language acquisition ( Applied Linguistics )

Is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be vocal as with speech or manual as in sign. Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language, rather than second language acquisition, which deals with acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.

Second language acquisition ( Applied Linguistics )

Or second language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second language acquisition (often capitalized as Second Language Acquisition or abbreviated to SLA) is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth or subsequent languages.

Language assessment ( Applied Linguistics )

Or language testing is a field of study under the umbrella of applied linguistics. Its main focus is the assessment of first, second or other language in the school, college, or university context; assessment of language use in the workplace; and assessment of language in the immigration, citizenship, and asylum contexts. The assessment may include listening, speaking, reading, writing or cultural understanding. Equal weightage may be placed on knowledge (understanding how the language works theoretically) and proficiency (ability to use the language practically), or greater weightage may be given to one aspect or the other.

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Sociolinguistics ( Descriptive

Linguistics )

Is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.

Etymology ( Descriptive Linguistics )

Is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.

Anthropological linguistics ( Descriptive Linguistics )

Is the study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology, cognition and language.

Graphemics ( Descriptive Linguistics )

Graphemics or graphematics is the linguistic study of writing systems and their basic components, i.e. graphemes.

Historical linguistics ( Descriptive Linguistics )

(also called diachronic linguistics) is the study of language change over time. It has five main concerns:
y y y y y

to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages. to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and determine their relatedness, grouping them into language families (comparative linguistics). to develop general theories about how and why language changes. to describe the history of speech communities. to study the history of words.

Comparative linguistics ( Descriptive Linguistics )

Is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language, and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages.
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Linguistic geography
It is dominated by linguists rather than geographers. Charles Withers describes the difference as resulting from a focus on "elements of language, and only then with their geographical or social variation, as opposed to investigation of the processes making for change in the extent of language areas. In recent times , greater emphasis has been laid upon explanation rather than description of the patterns of linguistic change. The move has paralleled similar concerns in geography and language studies. These studies have paid attention to the social use of language, and to variations in dialect within languages in regard to social class or occupation. In England, linguistic geography has traditionally focussed upon rural English, rather than urban English. A common production of linguistic invesigators of dialects is the shaded and dotted map showing where one linguistic feature ends and another begins or overlaps. Various compilations of these maps for England have been issued over the years, including Joseph Wright's English Dialect Dictionary (18961905), the Survey of English Dialects (1962-8), and The Linguistic Atlas of England (1978).

Biolinguistics
Is the study of the biology and evolution of language. It is a highly interdisciplinary field, including linguists, biologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and others. By shifting the focus of investigation in linguistics to a comprehensive scheme that embraces natural sciences, it seeks to yield a framework by which we can understand the fundamentals of the faculty of language.

Stylistics
Is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and peoples dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers.

Linguistic typology
Is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages. It includes three subdisciplines: qualitative typology, which deals with the issue of comparing languages and withinlanguage variance; quantitative typology, which deals with the distribution of structural patterns in the worlds languages; and theoretical typology, which explains these distributions.

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