More About Article Usage

Mary Westervelt Article usage continues to plague non-native speakers even when they have become very proficient at other aspects of English usage. In this reading, well discuss and practice some of the patterns that writers frequently need to use. Well look at learner errors and discuss how to avoid them. Before we look at specific learner errors, lets review the list of terms used to discuss article usage. Abstract noun: a noun which refers to a process (such as rehabilitation), a force (electricity), an idea (morality) or an emotion (hate), rather than to a physical thing that can be touched. Concrete noun: a noun which refers to a physical thing that can be touched. Countable noun: a noun that names something that can be counted. Examples: book(s), person (people), problem(s). NOTE: some count nouns refer to concrete items, and some to abstract ones. (Note: countable nouns are sometimes called count nouns.) Uncountable noun: a noun that names something that is usually not counted and usually has no plural/singular distinction. Examples: sugar, coffee, toothpaste. To count or measure these nouns, put them in containers: three cups of sugar, a cup of coffee, two tubes of toothpaste. NOTE: Here we are talking about linguistic countability, which varies from language to language. In Spanish, for example, its possible to count bread or to use the word bread in the plural (pan, panes). In English, thats not possible (in normal usage). To speak of plural bread, you must say loaves of bread. (Note: uncountable nouns are sometimes called noncount nouns. Concrete uncountable nouns, such as sugar, coffee and cheese are sometimes called mass nouns.) Determiner: a grammatical class of words used to specify nouns. The class includes articles (a, an, the, some, any); possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their), and demonstratives (this, that, these, those). Sometimes counters (one, two, the first, the second, etc.) are included in the set of determiners. However, while its not possible to have two determiners, it is possible to have a determiner and a counter (the first boy, these three books, my second child). Another group of words that can premodify nouns is partitive expressions (one of the books, many of the reasons, both of the children). Note that these expressions always occur with plural nouns.

Now lets look at some typical errors made by learners of English and discuss the rules they break. Error One: no determiner with a singular countable noun Here is a sentence written by a student. Can you see the error? John is rich man. The author has left out the article a, which is necessary with man, even though rich occurs before man. John is a rich man. (Compare: John is rich.) Heres another example from a student essay: Our company only sells recyclable product. The word product is a countable noun. It must be plural, or it must have a determiner. In this case, the plural products is appropriate. Rule 1: A COUNTABLE noun may NEVER appear without an article or another determiner, unless it is plural. (Rare exceptions do occur; for example, in parallel structures such as this weather would stop man or beast; or phrases such as as custodian of the child, I cannot permit him to join that group. )

Error Two: Misuse of a/an or the with singular nouns Remember that the article a/an* is used with countable nouns and has these basic uses: 1. It indicates the first mention of a singular countable noun. A man from Eritrea works in our building.

2. It indicates reference to one member of a class, but not necessarily to a specific member. Id like to buy a book for my brother.

3. It indicates identity or definition as a member of a class, or existence or presence. John is a rich man. (There are many, but he is identified as a member of the class of rich men.)

There is a man at the door who wants to speak to you. (A man is present at the door.) There is a problem with the report you submitted. (A problem exists with the report.)

Remember that a/an is only used with singular, countable nouns. Whats wrong with these sentences? All the founders of Apple Computers are a rich man. Id like a sugar in my coffee. In the first sentence, the referent is all the founders, and is plural. Thus the sentence should read, All the founders of Apple Computers are rich men. (Or, Allare rich.)

In the second sentence, sugar is uncountable. The correct sentence would be this: Id like some sugar (or a teaspoon of sugar) in my coffee.

Note: Uncountable nouns do not occur with plural except to indicate that the whole is divided into many groups: Dextrose, maltose, lactose are all sugars found in food. (They are all types of sugar.) The article the indicates specific reference. The noun may be singular or plural: Give me the book(s) on the table.

In discourse, a switch from a to the is a switch from first mention of a noun to later mention of that same noun: A man from Eritrea works in our building. The mans family is still in Africa.

Here are more examples: Id like to buy a book about restaurants in Philadelphia. (First mention of a countable noun, AND indefinite reference: use a/an) One popular book is the one by Zagat. (the indicates a specific book.)

The book is for sale in most book stores. (the indicates a book already identified.) Other books are the Michelin Guide, and Lyles Guide to Philadelphia Restaurants. (with other, use plural. Compare: another book is the Michelin Guide.)

Notice how the switch from a to the progresses in the following conversation: A: Id like to buy a book for my brother. (first mention, indefinite reference) B: What kind of book? (no article needed with what kind of) A: Well, he likes the movie, October Sky. Isnt that a book as well? (the with a specific movie, identified in the sentence. a in a question about identity or definition: Isnt that a book? B: Yes, it is. However, I think the movie is better than the book. (Specific reference: both nouns have already been mentioned.) Now try correcting the errors in these sentences: Ive never seen the movie in the Japanese language. He put his book on a table. The waiter cleared a table and threw a book away. In the first example, the author means hes never seen any movies in Japanese, of which there are many. He should write, Ive never seen a movie in the Japanese language. (Well look at this sentence more in the next section.)

In the second example, the author begins by telling about an action: He put his book on a table. We know from a table that there are many tables in this room, which we can guess is a room in a restaurant when we read about the waiter in the second sentence. However, the writer seems to have introduced a new table and a new book in the second sentence. The following corrections make it clear that this is not the case: He put his book on a table. The waiter cleared the table and threw the book away.

(Why is the waiter correct? Because we expect a waiter in a restaurant, the way we expect a television set in a U.S. living room. We say, turn on the TV, not turn on a TV.) Rule 2: Use a/an for first mention or indefinite mention of a singular countable noun. Use the for later mention or specific mention.

Error Three: Misuse of abstract uncountable nouns So far weve focused on common errors with count nouns such as man and book. Now lets look at some of the most common errors with uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns may be concrete (sugar, toothpaste) or abstract (life, happiness). Here well focus on abstract uncountable nouns. At first it seems obvious that nouns that name abstract concepts will be uncountable. However, a great many abstract nouns, including love and experience, have both a count and an uncountable meaning. The count meaning is more specific or concrete than the corresponding uncountable meaning. Here is a chart which shows some of the common words with both count and uncountable meanings: ABSTRACT NOUNS Uncountable usage I have a lot of experience with Windows OS, but not much experience with other operating systems. Justice requires that the criminal pay for the crime. Light travels faster than sound. Love is blind Capitalism and democracy do not necessarily go hand in hand. Countable usage He had many hair-raising experiences during his years as a foreign correspondent. The Justices on the Supreme Court are nominated by the President. The bright lights made the scene cheerful. The engine began to make a high-pitched sound that meant it was about to explode. He has two loves: cooking, and eating. The new democracies in the former Soviet Union are finding that change is not easy.

(The count noun related to capitalism is capitalist, a person who believes in or practices capitalism.) A cat or a dog can be good company for a Jones went from selling his own web software person who lives alone. over the internet, to founding a company which employs twenty software designers. Joan just found out that her father died; I think Some companies provide retirement benefits she could use (some) company right now. for their employees; others do not. Others: abuse, business, interest, work frequent abuses(violations) of the law; he opened a business (a store); many interests hobbies); other works(objects) of art; Note: some abstracts are countable, but are usually plural: morals and rights are two examples. If these occur as single nouns, it is usually with the: the moral of the story; the right to remain silent. Can you correct this sentence?

 I have held several works in the field of accounting. Many non-native speakers try to use works to mean jobs. However, the word works means objects of art or acts of charity. It cannot be used to mean jobs. The purpose of public transport is to provide the public access to homes, jobs and recreations. Its possible to count recreational activities, but not recreations. That word should be singular. In addition, the author probably meant to say that public transport should provide access. That word does not need an article in this sentence. (Perhaps, however, she meant provide access to the public. However, making this change makes the sentence awkward: to provide access to the public to homes, jobs and recreation?) The correct sentence would be this: The purpose of public transport is to provide public access to homes, jobs and recreation.

Rule 3: Be careful when using abstract nouns that you have the appropriate meaning. Abstract meaning does not usually take an article (neither a/an, nor the). Using a/an or the with an abstract uncountable noun might change the meaning of the word. Check a learners dictionary for examples if you are in doubt. Error Four: Misunderstanding of how to make generic statements Every language has a way to make statements that are general (generic) rather than specific to one individual. Problems occur when a learner of English uses a pattern that works in his or her first language, but which doesnt work in English. Look at these examples: A good way to stay healthy is to take vitamin. Nobody can live without the love. In the first example, a count noun, vitamin, is used to make general reference to what people should take: vitamins. Remember that, in English, a countable noun must have a determiner or be plural. The most common way to make a general statement with a countable noun is to make the noun plural. (Note: this is not the only way to make a general statement. For more detail, refer to Articles in Generic Reference. In the second example, an abstract uncountable noun, love, is used to make general reference to what people need to live. However, in English we dont use the for general meaning; abstract nouns are general by nature. We use the to indicate a particular or more specific meaning:

The love of his parents is what helped Joe overcome his disability.

The original examples should be corrected as follows to have general meaning: A good way to stay healthy is to take vitamins. Nobody can live without love.

Remember this sentence? Ive never seen the movie in the Japanese language. You may have wondered why it was incorrect. After all, youve been told that the often occurs before a noun that is made specific by a modifying phrase that occurs after the noun. Here we have in the Japanese language as a modifying phrase after movie. Isnt it correct to use the? The answer is that you must consider the intent of the statement. If the intent is to name a specific movie, namely the one in the Japanese language (as opposed to others in, say, Russian or Chinese), then yes, this sentence meets that goal. However, if the intent is to make a general statement about all Japanese movies, the sentence must read, Ive never seen a movie in the Japanese language. Notice that this sentence makes a negative statement: never seena movie. A similar positive sentence would be, Ive seen many movies in the Japanese language. Rule 4: When making generic reference with a countable noun, remember that every countable noun must have a determiner or be plural, even when its meaning is general. When making generic reference with an abstract noun, do not use the. Use the only to indicate a specific type of the noun in question.