LAN Administration History The increasing demand and use of computers in universities and research labs in the late

1960s generated the need to provide high-speed interconnections between computer systems. A 1970 report from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus" network gave a good indication of the situation. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University in 1974 but was never developed into a successful commercial product. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 19731975, and filed as U.S. Patent 4,063,220. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks." ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977. It had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York. Standards evolution The development and proliferation of personal computers using the CP/M operating system in the late 1970s, and later DOS-based systems starting in 1981, meant that many sites grew to dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial driving force for networking was generally to share storage and printers, which were both expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to be the year of the LAN. In practice, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical layer and network protocol implementations, and a plethora of methods of sharing resources. Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which provided even-handed support for dozens of competing card/cable types, and a much more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. Netware dominated[12] the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid 1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server and Windows for Workgroups. Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base. Microsoft and 3Com worked together to create a simple network operating system which formed the base of 3Com's 3+Share, Microsoft's LAN Manager and IBM's LAN Server - but none of these were particularly successful. During the same period, Unix computer workstations from vendors such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, Silicon Graphics, Intergraph, NeXT and Apollo were using TCP/IP based networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in this area continue to be influential on the Internet and in both Linux and Apple Mac OS X

networkingand the TCP/IP protocol has now almost completely replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF, and other protocols used by the early PC LANs. Cabling Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of coaxial cable. However shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring implementation, and in 1984 StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10Base-T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today. In addition, fiber-optic cabling is increasingly used in commercial applications. As cabling is not always possible, wireless Wi-Fi is now the most common technology in residential premises, as the cabling required is minimal and it is well suited to mobile laptops and smartphones. Technical aspects Network topology describes the layout pattern of interconnections between devices and network segments. Switched Ethernet has been for some time the most common Data Link Layer and Physical Layer implementation for local area networks. At the higher layers, the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) has become the standard. Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other, often at least one is connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access. Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with VLANs. Larger LANs also contain a wide variety of network devices such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.[13] LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by tunneling across the Internet using virtual private network technologies. Depending on how the connections are established and secured in a LAN, and the distance involved, a LAN may also be classified as a metropolitan area network (MAN) or a wide area network (WAN) IEEE 802 IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. (By contrast, in cell relay networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous networks, where data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this standard.) The number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE could assign, though 802 is sometimes associated with the date the first meeting was held February 1980.

The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC), so that the layers can be listed like this:

Data link layer o LLC Sublayer o MAC Sublayer Physical layer

The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area. Working groups Name IEEE 802.1 IEEE 802.2 IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.4 IEEE 802.5 IEEE 802.6 IEEE 802.7 IEEE 802.8 IEEE 802.9 IEEE 802.10 IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n IEEE 802.12 IEEE 802.13 IEEE 802.14 IEEE 802.15 IEEE 802.15.1 IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15.3 IEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.5 IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.16.1 IEEE 802.17 IEEE 802.18 IEEE 802.19 Description Bridging (networking) and Network Management LLC Ethernet Token bus Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring MANs Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic TAG Integrated Services LAN Interoperable LAN Security Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification) 100BaseVG Unused Cable modems Wireless PAN Bluetooth certification IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence High-Rate wireless PAN Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., ZigBee, WirelessHART, MiWi, etc.) Mesh networking for WPAN Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification) Local Multipoint Distribution Service Resilient packet ring Radio Regulatory TAG Coexistence TAG Note inactive disbanded inactive disbanded disbanded disbanded disbanded disbanded disbanded disbanded

IEEE 802.20 IEEE 802.21 IEEE 802.22 IEEE 802.23 Ethernet physical layer

Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Media Independent Handoff Wireless Regional Area Network Emergency Services Working Group New (March, 2010)

A standard 8P8C (often called RJ45) connector used most commonly on cat5 cable, one of the types of cabling used in Ethernet networks Standard Physical media Network topology Major variants Maximum distance Mode of operation Maximum bit rate Voltage levels Available signals Common connector types IEEE 802.3 (2002 onwards) Coaxial cable, twisted pair, optical fiber Point-to-point, star, bus 10BASE-T, 10BASE2, 10BASE5, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, 100BASE-T, 1000BASE-T, 1000BASESX 100 metres (328 ft) over twisted pair, up to 100 km over optical fiber Differential (Balanced) 3 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s +/- 2.5V (over twisted pair) Tx+, Tx-, Rx+, Rx8P8C, LC, SC, ST

The Ethernet physical layer is the physical layer component of the Ethernet family of computer network standards. The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses quite a few physical media interfaces and several magnitudes of speed. The speed ranges from 1 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s while the physical medium can range from bulky coaxial cable to twisted pair to

optical fiber. In general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all physical layers. 10 Gigabit Ethernet is becoming more popular in both enterprise and carrier networks, with 40 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Ethernet ratified. Higher speeds are under development. Robert Metcalfe, one of the co-inventors of ethernet, now believes commercial applications using terabit Ethernet may occur by 2015 though he says existing Ethernet standards may have to be overthrown to reach terabit Ethernet. Many Ethernet adapters and switch ports support multiple speeds, using autonegotiation to set the speed and duplex for the best values supported by both connected devices. If auto-negotiation fails, a multiple speed device will sense the speed used by its partner, but will assume halfduplex. A 10/100 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. A 10/100/1000 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. Physical layers Name Experimental Ethernet Description The original 2.94 Mbit/s Ethernet implementation had a eight bit addresses and other differences in frame format. Manchester coded on 50 coaxial cable.

The following sections provide a brief summary of official Ethernet media types (section numbers from the IEEE 802.3-2008 standard are parenthesized). In addition to these official standards, many vendors have implemented proprietary media types for various reasonsoften to support longer distances over fiber optic cabling. Early implementations Description Original standard uses a single coaxial cable into which you literally tap a connection by drilling into the cable to connect to the core and screen. Largely obsolete, though due to its widespread deployment in 10BASE5 802.3 (8) the early 1980s, some systems may still be in use.[citation needed] Was known also as Thick-Ethernet. 10 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, copper RG-8X (expensive) coaxial cabling, bus topology with collision detection. 50 coaxial cable connects machines together, each machine using a T-adaptor to connect to its NIC. Requires terminators at each end. For many years during the mid to late 1980 this was the dominant Ethernet 10BASE2 802.3 (10) standard. Also called Thin Ethernet, ThinNet or Cheapernet. 10 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, copper RG-58 (cheap) coaxial cabling, bus topology with collision detection. 10BROAD36 802.3 (11) An early standard supporting Ethernet over longer distances. It utilized broadband modulation techniques, similar to those employed in cable modem systems, and operated over coaxial cable. 10 Mbit/s, scrambled NRZ signaling modulated (PSK) over high frequency Name Standard

1BASE5

802.3 (12)

StarLAN 10 Proprietary LattisNet UTP 10BASE-T Proprietary

802.3 (14)

FOIRL 10BASE-F 10BASE-FL

802.3 (9.9) 802.3 (15)

carrier, broad bandwidth coaxial cabling, bus topology with collision detection. Operated at 1 Mbit/s over twisted pair to an active hub. Although a commercial failure, 1BASE5 defined the architecture for all subsequent Ethernet evolution. Also called StarLAN. 1 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, copper twisted pair cabling, star topology. 10 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, copper twisted pair cabling, star topology - evolved into 10BASE-T 10 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, copper twisted pair cabling, star topology - evolved into 10BASE-T Runs over four wires (two twisted pairs) on a Category 3 or Category 5 cable. An active hub or switch sits in the middle and has a port for each node. This is also the configuration used for 100BASE-T and gigabit Ethernet. Manchester coded signaling, copper twisted pair cabling, star topology - direct evolution of 1BASE-5. Fiber-optic inter-repeater link; the original standard for Ethernet over fiber A generic term for the family of 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standards using fiber optic cable: 10BASE-FL, 10BASE-FB and 10BASE-FP. Of these only 10BASE-FL is in widespread use. 10 Mbit/s, Manchester coded signaling, fiber pair An updated version of the FOIRL standard Intended for backbones connecting a number of hubs or switches; it is now obsolete A passive star network that required no repeater, it was never implemented

802.3 (15&18) 802.3 10BASE-FB (15&17) 802.3 10BASE-FP (15&16)

Early Ethernet standards used Manchester coding so that the signal was self-clocking not adversely affected by high-pass filters. Fast Ethernet Name 100BASE-T Description A term for any of the three standards for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair cable. Includes 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 802.3 (21) 100BASE-T2. As of 2009, 100BASE-TX has totally dominated the market, and is often considered to be synonymous with 100BASE-T in informal usage. All of them use a star topology. 4B5B MLT-3 coded signaling, CAT5 copper cabling with two 802.3 (24) twisted pairs. 802.3 (23) 8B6T PAM-3 coded signaling, CAT3 copper cabling (as used for 10BASE-T installations) with four twisted pairs (uses all four pairs in the cable). Now obsolete, as CAT5 cabling is the norm. Limited Standard

100BASE-TX 100BASE-T4

to half-duplex. No products exist.[citation needed] PAM-5 coded signaling, CAT3 copper cabling with two twisted pairs, star topology. Supports full-duplex. It is functionally equivalent to 100BASE-TX, but supports old telephone cable. However, special sophisticated digital signal 100BASE-T2 802.3 (32) processors are required to handle encoding schemes required, making this option fairly expensive at the time. It arrived well after 100BASE-TX was established in the market. The technology developed for 100BASE-T2 was the foundation for 1000BASE-T. 4B5B NRZI coded signaling, two strands of multi-mode optical 100BASE-FX 802.3 (24) fiber. Maximum length is 400 meters for half-duplex connections (to ensure collisions are detected) or 2 kilometers for full-duplex. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over multi-mode fiber. Maximum length is 300 meters. 100BASE-SX used short wave length (850 nm) optics that 100BASE-SX TIA was sharable with 10BASE-FL, thus making it possible to have an auto-negotiation scheme and have 10/100 fiber adapters. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet bidirectionally over a single strand of singlemode optical fiber. A multiplexer is used to split transmit and 100BASE-BX10 Proprietary receive signals into different wavelengths allowing them to share the same fiber. Supports up to 10 km. 100BASE-LX10 Proprietary 100 Mbit/s Ethernet up to 10 km over a pair of Single Mode Fibers. Standardized by a different IEEE 802 subgroup, 802.12, because it used a different, more centralized form of media access ("Demand Priority"). Championed by only HP, 100VG-AnyLAN (as was the 100Base-VG 802.12 marketing name) was the earliest in the market. It needed four pairs in a Cat-3 cable. Now obsolete (802.12 has been "inactive" since 1997) the standard has been withdrawn. One Gbit/s Main article: Gigabit Ethernet All of these use a star topology. Name 1000BASE-T 1000BASE-TX 1000BASE-SX 1000BASE-LX Description PAM-5 coded signaling, At least Category 5 cable, with Category 5e strongly recommended copper cabling with four 802.3 (40) twisted pairs. Each pair is used in both directions simultaneously. TIA 854 Only over Cat-6 copper cabling. Unimplemented. 8B10B NRZ coded signaling, short-range multi-mode fiber (up 802.3 to 550 m). 8B10B NRZ coded signaling, multi-mode fiber (up to 550 m) or 802.3 single-mode fiber (up to 2 km; can be optimized for longer distances, up to 10 km). Standard

1000BASE-LH 1000BASE-CX 1000BASE-BX10 1000BASE-LX10 1000BASE-PX10-D 1000BASE-PX10-U 1000BASE-PX20-D 1000BASE-PX20-U 1000BASE-ZX 1000BASE-KX 10 Gbit/s

multivendor 802.3

over single-mode fiber (up to 100 km). A long-haul solution.

8B10B NRZ coded signaling, balanced shielded twisted pair (up to 25 m) over special copper cable. Predates 1000BASE-T and rarely used. up to 10 km. Bidirectional over single strand of single-mode 802.3 fibre. 802.3 Up to 10 km over a pair of single-mode fibres. downstream (from head-end to tail-ends) over single-mode fiber 802.3 using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km). upstream (from a tail-end to the head-end) over single-mode 802.3 fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km). downstream (from head-end to tail-ends) over single-mode fiber 802.3 using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km). upstream (from a tail-end to the head-end) over single-mode 802.3 fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km). Unknown Up to 100 km over single-mode fibre. 802.3ap 1 m over backplane

10 Gigabit Ethernet defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal data rate of 10 Gbit/s, ten times as fast as Gigabit Ethernet. In 2002, the first 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard was published as IEEE Std 802.3ae-2002. Subsequent standards encompassed media types for single-mode fibre (long haul), multi-mode fibre (up to 300 m), copper backplane (up to 1 m) and copper twisted pair (up to 100 m). All 10 gigabit varieties were consolidated into IEEE Std 802.3-2008. As of 2009, 10 gigabit Ethernet is predominantly deployed in carrier networks, where 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER enjoy significant market shares. Name 10GBASE-SR Standard 802.3ae Description designed to support short distances over deployed multi-mode fiber cabling, it has a range of between 26 m and 82 m depending on cable type. It also supports 300 m operation over a new 2000 MHzkm multi-mode fiber. uses wavelength division multiplexing to support ranges of between 240 m and 300 m over deployed multi-mode cabling. Also supports 10 km over single-mode fiber. supports 10 km over single-mode fiber supports 40 km over single-mode fiber A variation of 10GBASE-SR using the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 SONET/SDH equipment A variation of 10GBASE-LR using the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 SONET/SDH equipment

10GBASE-LX4 802.3ae 10GBASE-LR 10GBASE-ER 802.3ae 802.3ae

10GBASE-SW 802.3ae 10GBASE-LW 802.3ae

10GBASE-EW 802.3ae 10GBASE-CX4 802.3ak 10GBASE-T 10GBASE-LRM 10GBASE-KX4 10GBASE-KR 802.3an 802.3aq 802.3ap 802.3ap

A variation of 10GBASE-ER using the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 SONET/SDH equipment Designed to support short distances over copper cabling, it uses InfiniBand 4x connectors and CX4 cabling and allows a cable length of up to 15 m. Was specified by the IEEE Std 802.3an-2006 which has been incorporated into the IEEE Std 802.3-2008. Uses unshielded twisted-pair wiring. Extend to 220 m over deployed 500 MHzkm multimode fiber 1 m over 4 lanes of backplane 1 m over a single lane of backplane

40 and 100 Gbit/s This version of Ethernet specified two speeds and was standardized in June 2010 as IEEE 802.3ba, with one addition in March 2011 as IEEE 802.3bg. The nomenclature is as follows: 40 100 Standard Description gigabits/second gigabits/second 40GBASE-KR4 at least 1 m over a backplane 40GBASE-CR4 100GBASE-CR10 approximately 7 m over copper cable assembly at least 100 m over multi-mode fiber 40GBASE-SR4 100GBASE-SR10 802.3ba at least 125 m over new 2000 MHzkm multimode fiber 40GBASE-LR4 100GBASE-LR4 at least 10 km over single-mode fiber 100GBASE-ER4 at least 40 km over single-mode fiber 40GBASE-FR 802.3bg Single-mode fiber over 2 km "First mile" For providing Internet access service directly from providers to homes and small businesses: Name 10BaseS Standard Proprietary Description Ethernet over VDSL, used in Long Reach Ethernet products[14] Over telephone wires

2BASE-TL 10PASS-TS 100BASE-LX10 100BASE-BX10 IEEE 802.3ah1000BASE-LX10 2004 1000BASE-BX10 1000BASE-PX10 1000BASE-PX20 Twisted-pair cable

Single-mode fiber-optics Passive optical network

Several varieties of Ethernet were specifically designed to run over 4-pair copper structured cabling already installed in many locations. ANSI recommends using Category 6 cable for new installations.[citation needed] RJ-45 Wiring (TIA/EIA-568-B T568A) 10BASE- 100BASE- 1000BASE- PoE PoE Color telephone T TX T mode A mode B TX+ z bidi 48V out white/green TXz bidi 48V out green 48V RX+ z bidi white/orange return ring bidi 48V out blue bidi 48V out white/blue tip 48V RXz bidi orange return 48V bidi white/brown return 48V bidi brown return

Pin Pair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 3 2 1 1 2 4 4

Combining 10Base-T (or 100BASE-TX) with "IEEE 802.3af mode A" allows a hub to transmit both power and data over only two pairs. This was designed to leave the other two pairs free for analog telephone signals.[15][not in citation given] The pins used in "IEEE 802.3af Mode B" supplies power over the "spare" pairs not used by 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. In a departure from both 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T uses all four cable pairs for simultaneous transmission in both directions through the use of echo cancellation. Minimum cable lengths All copper Ethernet segments that run the collision detection (CD) portion of CSMA/CD have a minimum cable length to function properly because of reflections. This applies only to 10BASET and 100BASE-TX standards; The 1000BASE-TX standard is covered at the end of this section. Fiber connections have minimum cable lengths due to level requirements on received signals. Fiber ports designed for long-haul wavelengths require a signal attenuator if used within a building. Industrial Ethernet applications use a star topology with no collisions so that no minimum cable length is required. 1000BASE-TX supports half-duplex mode, making collisions possible. Consequently, the 1000BASE-TX standard requires a minimum cable length for collision detection to function

properly[citation needed]; to avoid this in Gigabit Ethernet, small frames are padded into the transmission in half-duplex mode. Related standards Some networking standards are not part of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard, but support the Ethernet frame format, and are capable of interoperating with it.

LattisNetA SynOptics pre-standard twisted-pair 10 Mbit/s variant. 100BaseVGAn early contender for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet. It runs over Category 3 cabling. Uses four pairs. Commercial failure. TIA 100BASE-SXPromoted by the Telecommunications Industry Association. 100BASE-SX is an alternative implementation of 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fiber; it is incompatible with the official 100BASE-FX standard. Its main feature is interoperability with 10BASE-FL, supporting autonegotiation between 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s operation a feature lacking in the official standards due to the use of differing LED wavelengths. It is targeted at the installed base of 10 Mbit/s fiber network installations. TIA 1000BASE-TXPromoted by the Telecommunications Industry Association, it was a commercial failure, and no products exist. 1000BASE-TX uses a simpler protocol than the official 1000BASE-T standard so the electronics can be cheaper, but requires Category 6 cabling. G.hnA standard developed by ITU-T and promoted by HomeGrid Forum for highspeed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networks over existing home wiring (coaxial cables, power lines and phone lines). G.hn defines an Application Protocol Convergence (APC) layer that accepts Ethernet frames and encapsulates them into G.hn MSDUs.

Other networking standards do not use the Ethernet frame format but can still be connected to Ethernet using MAC-based bridging.

802.11Standards for wireless local area networks (LANs), sold with brand name Wi-Fi 802.16Standards for wireless metropolitan area networks (MANs), sold with brand name WiMAX

Other special-purpose physical layers include Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet and TTEthernet Time-Triggered Ethernet for embedded systems. Network Interface Card (NIC)

A 1990s Ethernet network interface controller card which connects to the motherboard via the nowobsolete ISA bus. This combination card features both a (now obsolete) bayonet cap BNC connector (left) for use in coaxial-based 10base2 networks and an 8P8C connector (right) for use in twisted pair-based 10baseT networks. (The ports could not be used simultaneously.) Motherboard via one of:

Connects to

Integrated PCI Connector ISA Connector PCI-E FireWire USB

Network via one of:

Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Optical fiber

Speeds

Common manufacturers

Token ring 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s up to 160 Gbit/s Novell Intel Realtek

A network interface controller (also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network. Whereas network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. Purpose The network controller implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical layer and data link layer standard such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or Token Ring. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack, allowing communication among small groups

of computers on the same LAN and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as IP.

Madge 4/16 Mbit/s TokenRing ISA-16 NIC Although other network technologies exist (e.g. token ring), Ethernet has achieved near-ubiquity since the mid-1990s. Every Ethernet network controller has a unique 48-bit serial number called a MAC address, which is stored in read-only memory. Every computer on an Ethernet network must have at least one controller. Normally it is safe to assume that no two network controllers will share the same address, because controller vendors purchase blocks of addresses from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and assign a unique address to each controller at the time of manufacture. The NIC allows computers to communicate over a computer network. It is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer) and layer 2 (data link layer) device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium and provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly. Implementation Whereas network controllers used to operate on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. Newer server motherboards may even have dual network interfaces built-in. The Ethernet capabilities are either integrated into the motherboard chipset or implemented via a low-cost dedicated Ethernet chip, connected through the PCI (or the newer PCI express) bus. A separate network card is not required unless additional interfaces are needed or some other type of network is used. The NIC may use one or more of four techniques to transfer data:

Polling is where the CPU examines the status of the peripheral under program control. Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts the designated peripheral by applying its address to the system's address bus.[dubious discuss] Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the microprocessor that it is ready to transfer data.

Direct memory access is where an intelligent peripheral assumes control of the system bus to access memory directly. This removes load from the CPU but requires a separate processor on the card.

An Ethernet network controller typically has an 8P8C socket where the network cable is connected. Older NICs also supplied BNC, or AUI connections. A few LEDs inform the user of whether the network is active, and whether or not data transmission occurs. Ethernet network controllers typically support 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, and 1000 Mbit/s Ethernet varieties. Such controllers are designated 10/100/1000 - this means they can support a notional maximum transfer rate of 10, 100 or 1000 Megabits per second. Some products feature NIC partitioning (NPAR). Setting up a home network In the olden days about six years ago when Windows 95 first arrived on the scene creating a home network was a fearsome task reserved for the knowledgeable or the courageous. That's no longer the case. Windows XP makes setting up a network easy. The toughest part of the deal is physically installing the hardware; the software side is a minor operation. Why network? If you are a multiple-computer household, now's the time to get those computers hitched. Doing so has a lot of benefits. You can:

Share printers, CD-ROM drives and other removeable drives between the computers. Eliminate SneakerNet (passing files around on floppy or CD) and share files directly between PCs. Share a single Internet connection between computers (provided your agreement with your ISP allows this type of sharing). Play multiplayer games. Store only a single copy of large files, saving space on the other PCs' hard drives.

You can network computers that run different operating systems, but you'll find the ideal networking setup for a small home LAN (local area network) is with XP running on your most powerful machine(s) and either Windows 98 or Windows Me running on the other computers. I don't recommend trying to include computers running Windows 95 in your network unless you are an experienced user. 10-step total networking You can get a complete home network up and running in 10 easy steps. Here's a summary of what's involved: 1. Take stock of your existing hardware.

2. If you wish to share an Internet connection using Internet Connection Sharing (ICS),

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

choose which computer will be your ICS host. Decide what type of network technology you wish to use. Make a list of the hardware you need for each computer. Install the network adaptors and install your modem on the ICS host computer. Physically cable the computers together. Switch on all computers, printers and other peripherals. Make sure the ICS host is connected to the Internet. Run the Network Setup Wizard on the ICS host.

10. Run the Network Setup Wizard on the other computers on the network. Let's take that step by step. 1. Take stock of your hardware Note each computer's location and its hardware, including peripherals such as printers and modems. 2. Choose your ICS host If you wish to share an Internet connection between your computers using Internet Connection Sharing (ICS), choose which computer will be your ICS host. The ICS host has a direct connection, either by dial-up modem or high-speed link, to the Internet and provides access to the Internet for other computers on the network. Ideally, the host should be a computer running Windows XP. I'll assume you have made this choice in the following steps. Apart from XP's easy handling of ICS, by using an XP computer as your ICS host you get the benefits of using the Internet Connection Firewall. 3. Choose a network technology The most common choices are Ethernet and wireless LANs. For an Ethernet LAN you will need to install a network interface card, or NIC, in each computer and run cabling between the computers. If you don't like the idea of opening your computer to install a network card, look for a USB adaptor instead. Depending on the size of your network, you may also need a network hub or router to provide interconnection between PCs on the LAN. Two PCs can get by using an RJ-45 crossover cable; three or more computers require a hub or multi-speed hub (called a switch). If you have a high-speed Internet connection, a high-speed router is a good option.

The Network Setup Wizard includes links to detailed advice about configuring your network, including help on designing a network layout to suit your home. If you opt for a wireless LAN, you'll also need a NIC for each PC (there are versions which use USB adaptors as well). The big benefit for home environments is that a wireless LAN does away with the need for cabling. On the down side, though, wireless LANs tend to be slower, less robust and appreciably more expensive than traditional Ethernet LANs. In particular, wireless LANs do not always live up to their stated working range, and you may find factors such as your home's construction and design, plus interference from other devices affect your wireless LAN's performance. You may need to add an expensive Access Point to extend the range of the LAN and, even so, it may not be sufficient. The bottom line is, if you decide to go the wireless route, make sure the store will refund your money if the LAN will not provide reliable performance within the specified range. 4. Make a list of hardware needed Make a list of the hardware you need for each computer, not forgetting any cabling, and buy it. If you're a little dazzled by the choices and configurations, consider purchasing a networking kit. These kits contain all you need to set up a two- or three-PC network. If possible, look for hardware which features the Windows XP Logo, indicating it is fully compatible with XP. 5. Install the adaptors Install the network adaptors and install your modem on the ICS host computer (you can also let the computers connect to the Internet independently by installing modems on each). 6. Cable the computers Physically cable the computers (and hubs or routers) together. Of course, you won't need to do this if you've chosen to go the wireless route.

If you're installing an Ethernet network and have a lot of cabling work to do, you may prefer to get a professional to come in and do this work for you. It won't be cheap, but you can be sure you get the job done correctly and hopefully with minimal damage done to walls, ceilings and floors. 7. Switch it on Switch on all computers, printers and other peripherals. 8. Connect the ICS host Go to the ICS host computer and make sure it is connected to the Internet. 9. Run the Network Setup Wizard on the ICS host To run the Network Setup Wizard on the ICS host, click Start -> Control Panel -> Network And Internet Connections -> Setup Or Change Your Home Or Small Office Network. Follow the instructions in each screen and press Next to continue. XP's Network Setup Wizard takes much of the pain out of setting up a home network. The Network Setup Wizard will guide you through:

Configuring your network adaptors (NICs). Configuring your computers to share a single Internet connection. Naming each computer. (Each computer requires a name to identify it on the network.) Sharing the Shared Files folder. Any files in this folder will be accessible to all computers on the network. Sharing printers. Installing the Internet Connection Firewall to guard you from online attacks.

10. Run the Network Setup Wizard on all computers To do so: 1. Insert the Windows XP CD in the first computer's drive. 2. When the XP Welcome Menu appears, click Perform Additional Tasks. 3. Click Setup Home Or Small Office Networking and follow the prompts. 4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for each computer on your network. Make sure you maintain an active Internet connection on your host computer as you proceed through this process. geekgirl.tip If you don't have a CD-ROM drive on one of the network computers, you can run the Network Setup Wizard from a floppy disk:

1. While running the Network Setup Wizard on the ICS host computer, select the option to copy the Network Setup Wizard to a floppy disk. 2. Once you've completed setup on the ICS host, take the floppy to the next computer and insert it in the drive. 3. Double-click My Computer. 4. Double-click 3 Floppy (A:). 5. Double-click netsetup.exe. The quickie XP network If you want a really easy networking experience and you have the hardware to support it, consider clean installing Windows XP on two or more computers. First install your network hardware (network interface cards, cabling, et cetera), then perform a new installation of Windows XP. During installation, XP will sense your hardware setup, ask for a name for each computer, and then ask which type of setup you wish to create. Select Typical Settings For A Default Network Configuration. That's it. Provided your hardware is XP-compatible, XP will create a LAN using the workgroup name MSHOME.

Using your network Once you have your network up and running, you can easily access other computers on the network via My Network Places (click Start -> My Network Places). The Task Pane in My Network Places lets you access computers on your network and adjust settings. The Task Pane in My Network Places lets you view your network connections and view each of the computers in your workgroup (the workgroup consists of all computers on a network which share the same workgroup name by default, XP gives all computers on your home network the workgroup name MSHOME, although you can change this if you wish). When you initially open My Network Places, you'll see icons for the Shared Files folder of each of the active network computers. Sharing a printer With your home network installed, your PC suddenly gains all the advantages of the other PC's on the network. If you've been lusting after your sister's colour photo printer, you can now print directly to it from your own machine. Provided, that is, your sister decides to share her printer.

(You might offer to let her share your laser printer in return as an inducement sharing works both ways.) To share a printer, on the computer which is directly connected to the printer:
1. Click Start -> Control Panel -> Printers And Other Hardware -> Printers And Faxes.

(Note: These steps will be a little different if you're sharing a printer on a PC running a version of Windows other than XP. For example, under Windows Me, you click Start -> Settings -> Printers.) 2. Click the printer you wish to share. 3. Click Share This Printer in the Task Pane. 4. In the printer's Properties dialog, click the Sharing tab.Click Share Name and OK. Make a printer accessible to others on the network by sharing it. Once a printer has been shared you can access it from other computers on the network. To do so: 1. Click Start -> Control Panel -> Printers And Other Hardware. 2. Click Add A Printer. 3. In the Add New Printer wizard, when asked whether the printer is a local or network printer, select the latter. 4. In the next screen, select the option to Browse For A Printer and click Next. 5. Select the appropriate printer from the list and continue with the wizard.

Sharing files and folders Sharing a folder is even easier than sharing a printer: 1. Open a folder (such as My Documents), click Make A New Folder in the Task Pane and name your new folder. 2. With the new folder highlighted, click Share This Folder. 3. In the Sharing tab of the Properties dialog box, select Share This Folder On The Network. 4. Provide a descriptive name for the folder. This name should make it easy for others on the network to recognize the folder; it doesn't have to be the same as the folder name you selected in step 1. 5. You can let other people on the network view and edit your files or view them only. If you want to protect your files from tampering, remove the tick from Allow Other Users to Change My Files. There are a variety of ways to access a shared folder. Here's one way: 1. Click Start -> My Network Places -> View Workgroup Computers. 2. Click the computer whose files you wish to access and then click the shared folder.

You can create shortcuts to shared folders to make them easier to access.