The Triumph of Modernity

From 1648 to the end of the 20th Century

A Christian View of History

Professor of History, Emeritus

Harry J. Groenewold,

By:

Harry J. Groenewold, Professor of History, Emeritus The Triumph of Modernity From 1648 to the end of the 20th Century a Christian View of History Copyright 2011 by H.J. Groenewold
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of the author and publisher. Published by: Etje & Harry Groenewold

ISBN 978-1-897544-42-6

Digitally printeD in CanaDa by

Dedicated to: My loving wife Etje Without whose help and support this work would not have come to fruition

Contents
The Modern Mind ..................................................................................1 The Age Of Reason...............................................................................10 Human Nature ......................................................................................19 The Christian Response: Treason Of The Clerks..................................30 Russia ....................................................................................................43 The Era Of Revolutions ........................................................................46 The French Revolution..........................................................................56 The Industrial Revolution .....................................................................70 The Age Of Ideologies (1815-1870).....................................................75 In Pursuit Of Utopia: Socialism In The 19th. Century ......................106 Darker Voices In The Nineteenth Century.........................................115 European Supremacy: The Age Of Materialism (1870-1914) ...........123 The Advance Of Democracy...............................................................131 European (Western) Civilization: From 1914 To 1945......................137 World War Two ..................................................................................160 The Postwar Decades: Twilight Or Promise? ....................................166 The Democracies Since 1945 ..............................................................173 A New Globalism?..............................................................................182 An Age Of Uncertainty ......................................................................193 About The Author...............................................................................203

tHe MoDeRn MInD

The language, values and conduct of 17th Century society expressed an unquestioning belief in God. He was present, the Witness to all human events. Rulers were appointed by God, indeed, all authority was God-given. Theology was far more than an intellectual game, it provided answers to anxious questions. In other words, religion was a central concern. The clergy, by and large, were better educated than their predecessors. They attended seminaries or universities even though they ministered in the main to an illiterate people living close to nature. In spite of the educational gulf that existed, the learned and the illiterate people agreed on the fundamentals of faith. Few people were aware of the fact that the year 1648 and the Peace of Westphalia were so crucial in marking an end to the wars of religion and making the break permanent in Christianity between the Protestants and Catholics. By this time most Protestants had come to reject a church-directed society. The 17th Century was also an age of Protestant scholasticism; it was a time of defining and systematizing doctrine. Theology was largely inherited from the Middle Ages, and its philosophy was Aristotle as understood by the medieval schoolmen. The modern scholasticism was very barren; it ignored the momentous changes and discoveries in geography and the sciences. This scholasticism was also very rationalistic in spirit and in practice. The test of truth was rational consistency, not religious experience. By the end of the 17th Century there was a crisis within Christianity. People asked such questions as: Is there any good reason to rely upon tradition when there is no historical or scientific evidence to support it? Or why should we suppose that God should concern Himself directly in human affairs? These were baffling questions for the late 17th Century intellectuals. Many of them sought a synthesis of rationalism and faith in God. But some opted for a faith devoid of dogma and tradition, the beginnings of Deism.

The Triumph of Modernity

By the year 1700 there was serious doubt expressed about the true worth of the Christian heritage: was it true? Was it even relevant? There are many examples: 1) English latitudinarianism sought to reduce theological differences to insignificance by applying to faith the sole test of reasonableness 2) John Toland published his Christianity not Mysterious in 1696. He condemned emotional certainty as suspect, and enthusiasm as dangerous. Toland insisted that there could no truth above reason. No one can argue that revelation is truth 3) Could Cartesian doubt be undone? Doubt should be the point of departure 4) It was the age of the scientific revolution. The influence was felt of Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Galileo (15641642), Royal Society (1662) and Newton (1642-1727). Descartes (1596-1650) doubted everything except his own existence. (I think, therefore I am). These examples underscore the development that science and philosophy are being detached from theology. The religious spirit became perceptibly less influential. Nature, in the same process, was reduced to a system which could be explained by human reason. But we must hasten to add that these new ideas influenced only a small group of people in Europe. The vast majority of the people continued the religious practises of their forebears, schooling was still run by the clergy and organized religion still carried out many social responsibilities. This continued well into the 18th Century. It was the age of the baroque of Bach (1685-1750) and of Handel (1685-1759). The 17th Century was the last Christian century in that it still commanded the cultural heights. The 18th Century was the age of popular piety. The doubt so evident by the end of the 17th Century created the climate in which the Enlightenment had its birth. A profound spiritual revolution took place, described by German historians

A Christian View of History

as the Aufklarung. This declaration of independence saw the development of a new worldview and a new intellectual order. The new worldview repudiated received opinions and truths. Many of them questioned the validity of religious and ethical systems. They turned from an otherworldly and pessimistic view to a secular and optimistic mood. They passionately argued for a new standard of truth not found in some supernatural revelation. This new standard for truth was to be found in the sciences. They appealed to the findings of Reason and the laws of nature. Science replaced religion as the standard to which humanity could appeal. Science also replaced philosophy, history replaced theology. The most distinguishing feature of the Enlightenment was its unshakable confidence in Reason. The triumph of Reason was the triumph of the intellectuals of the 18th Century. These intellectuals were largely members of the upper middle classes, having access to education, books and the leisure to pursue novel ideas. Newtonian science seemed to offer a simple formula relevant to other fields of thought. The scientific method was applied to all fields of knowledge. They were also determined to transform society in obedience to the dictates of Reason. To that end, they sought to convert the ruling elites to rational principles. One can describe the whole movement as The Enlightenment resembled a new religion, of which Reason was God, the Principia of Newton the Bible, and Voltaire the prophet. The intellectuals conducted a vast propaganda campaign disseminating the new ideas as widely as possible. The chief article in the creed of the new religion was faith in Reason, the omnipresent and autonomous arbiter of all things. They took for granted the supremacy of Reason as self-evident and as a most useful doctrine and superior guide over that of traditional authority. Reason would unlock the secrets of nature, virtue and teach the correct rules for creating poetry and art. The spirit of the Enlightenment was also practical and utilitarian. It sought to promote the happiness of all by reforming and

The Triumph of Modernity

transforming cultural institutions. The Enlightenment was also, for the most part, optimistic because they were fully convinced of the intrinsic goodness of humanity and of its ability to seek and to win happiness. This worldview was no longer fearful of new knowledge; rather, it welcomed new discoveries with enthusiasm. There was almost a reckless search for truth in the natural sciences and in the embryonic social sciences. In the process, the intellectuals established a natural system of the moral and social disciplines rooted in the laws of nature. The idea of natural law, natural ethics and natural religion became dominant among the cultural elites of the Atlantic Civilization. As a result of their study of existing institutions and customs, the intellectuals became active reformers: 1) demanded freedom of thought and expression, 2) declared war on the irrational as expressed in religion and superstition 3) demanded reform of law to ensure a humanitarian approach, 4) demanded a secular way of life inspired by the nature of humanity, not directed by God. The spirit of the Enlightenment entered into mortal combat with the Christian faith; in the process, it gave birth to modernity as we know it. This new attitude also raised important questions about humanity: 1) are human beings born good, bad or neutral, 2) is human nature fixed for all time or is it changeable, improvable, perfectible, 3) how is change made effective, 4) do human beings have a free will, 5) how rational are human beings 6) what is meant by passions or self-interest, 7) are all human beings truly equal or merely at birth?

A Christian View of History

Of course, there was no unanimity of thought on these questions. But a consensus did emerge that humanity was changing for the better, the world would become a better place. The minority view disagreed because they were very pessimistic about human prospects. This pessimism meant that the old worldview of original sin died a hard death. Voltaire (1694-1778) found it necessary to attack this doctrine repeatedly. He argued that this doctrine was the brainchild of a debauched and repentant African. (St. Augustine). Pessimism was not limited to a handful of Augustinian or Calvinist Christians. It was not uncommon to describe human nature in the most unflattering terms: driven by passions, by egoism, hedonism, self-interest, self-esteem, pride. As one commented, Everything in nature proceeds by violence... This is the most general, absolute, unalterable, and ancient law of nature. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) was a satirist who ridiculed the foibles of humanity. Bernard Mandeville (1670-1773) in his The Fable of the Bees, argued that private vices lead to public virtues. La Mettrie (1709-1751) wrote Man a Machine (1748). He said Let us conclude boldly that man is a machine, and that there is in the whole universe only a single substance differently modified. There was no room for soul or a spiritual dimension or free will. La Mettrie insisted that man is an intelligent animal. He was a profound atheist. As a man who denied free will he said that When I do good or evil; when I am virtuous in the morning, vicious in the evening, it is my blood that is the cause of it.... Nevertheless, I persist in believing I have made a choice; I congratulate myself on my liberty.... What fools we are! Fools all the more unhappy, for that we reproach ourselves ceaselessly for having done what it was not in our power to do!. All untaught animals are only solicitous of pleasing themselves; and naturally follow the bent of their own inclinations without considering the good or harm that from their being pleased will accrue to others. But the more popular image was that of moral humanity. Humanity had an innate sense which individuals could distinguish between good and evil, and it sought social ends rather than private ends. This view inspired a whole line of British philosophers like Adam Smith (1723-1790) and David Hume (1711-1776). For

The Triumph of Modernity

most morality was ultimately dependent on Reason. The English defended Reason because as Deists they stressed Reason in religion. Reason was the great weapon against religious authority and superstition. Indeed, Reason will harmonize the passions. The belief was strong that humanity was malleable and perfectible. Education played a crucial role as did the environment. A change in the environment can lead to improvement. The 18th Century also saw a transition from absolute truth to subjective truth. At the end of this transition there were no absolute standards of truth, of moral conduct or of aesthetic judgment. Its heirs of modernity were completely subjective in their judgment. Nothing had universal validity. In other words, this view was very corrosive on western culture. One must not forget this was still an age of contrasts: humanitarianism and the slave trade, Deism and Methodism, moralists and mockers of morality, Jonathan Edwards and his belief in total depravity and Franklin proclaiming human happiness. There was a significant change in studies pursued. The study of philosophy defined it as the sum total of knowledge that proceeded from human Reason. It tended to empiricist, utilitarian and activist. It stressed utility in the pursuit of happiness. The study of theology declined in importance because of an anti-religious attitude. Religion was the enemy of freedom of thought. Organized Christianity supported irrational superstitions and often defended them with fanaticism in the face of rational criticism. The 17th Century sometimes called the age of genius, was a time of tremendous discoveries in the natural sciences. These discoveries made many people increasingly aware of a physical universe, a universe in which mystery gradually disappeared as new questions and perspectives pointed to a more secular understanding of reality. The key question, almost the question of the age, was: What is nature? Many intellectuals and scientists knew that the answer to this question was crucial because on it hinged even the more

A Christian View of History

profound questions about the nature of God, His relationship to the universe and His dealings with humanity. Out of this enquiry emerged a new picture of the universe and of humanitys place in nature. It rejected the classical Christian theory and offered a much more mechanical theory of nature. Nature was pictured as a machine, an engine or a clock. It was also noted that the universe could be described mathematically, that is, the universe was written in the language of mathematics. This mathematical or mechanical representation required a redefinition of nature. Primary qualities such as figure, magnitude, position and motion belonged to material bodies whereas qualities such as light, color, smell and sound were subjective, residing only in human consciousness and projected into nature. Galileo banished the human observer from nature and concerned himself only with primary qualities. There was no room for the personal or the ethical. Seventeenth century scientific thought expelled values, meaning or purpose from its considerations. The scientific revolution divided the world into two realms: mind and matter, a dualism readily accepted as orthodox in scientific circles. It left a universe uniform throughout its infinite extent, devoid of purpose and of personality. This nature had no need of mind, of the fragrance of flowers, the songs of birds or the brilliant sunsets or the multi-colored rainbows. The human mind, soul, purpose and human destiny belonged to a subjective man-made world. Nature, the great Newtonian machine, was made up of dead matter obedient to invariable laws without purpose or end. This dualism was a triumph of simplification and reductionism. It allowed scientists to pursue their interests without paying much attention to theology or questions of meaning; they could separate nature from God without denying the latter. They accepted the God-Creator, but that knowledge could only be learned from revealed theology. Scientists acknowledged God as a constitutional monarch without power Who was retained for purposes of

The Triumph of Modernity

explanation of origin and of the mysterious. But He was rejected for purposes of final causes. The world of nature was indifferent to human salvation. This new nature also involved a drastic rearrangement of the heavens and a new conception of space. The new Copernican cosmology reduced the earth to one of several planets revolving around the sun and subject to the same laws as all planetary bodies. Attendant on this new cosmology was a growing awareness of the infinity of the universe: a reality without a center. Reactions in the 17th Century to this new picture of the universe varied greatly. But for those who understood the implications, it became a matter of deep concern. For some the place and role of humanity became unclear and uncertain, others, especially the clergy, worried because science questioned the idea that nature had been created exclusively for humanity. These concerns and reservations, however, could not overshadow the sense of reverence, exhilaration and a sense of power. The enthusiastic supporters of the new science increasingly spoke of a human empire over nature. This sense of power, expressed in bold and aggressive language, was bolstered by the many achievements in navigation, exploration and inventions. An increasingly Promethean language pointed to a more secular, exploitative attitude towards nature. By the end of the 17th Century science had captured the interest of the European educated elites. The interest was also stimulated by the increasing number of travel books describing ways of life wholly alien to the European Christian heritage. Such travel literature described ancient cultures shaped by fundamentally different morals and spiritual values. Their very existence and, in some cases, longevity raised the question in the minds of some people that European customs were no better than those of other cultures, and that the Christian God was merely one of the options open to humanity. It also persuaded individuals that there was no necessary connection between morality and the Christian religion. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) a French writer pointed out that

A Christian View of History

many Christians led unedifying lives while non-Christians lived exemplary lives. He argued that faith and morality were totally independent of each other. A person could be moral without being a Christian. One of the outstanding popularizers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757). As secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science, he made available to the reading public the latest scientific discoveries. In transmitting the ideas of great scientists, de Fontenelle gave his work an anti-religious slant. In so doing he helped to confirm suspicions that organized Christianity was opposed to all scientific advance. This anti-religious attitude became very widespread in the 18th Century and down to the present day. But these new perceptions and attitudes were limited to the educated classes. The masses were not directly affected by the scientific revolution; they still regarded the universe as earth-centered; and the overwhelming majority continued to accept the truths of Christian teachings.

tHe AGe oF ReAson

Modernity had its inspiration from writers and intellectuals in the 17th Century. The ideas of Bacon, Locke, Newton, Descartes, Spinoza and many others, made possible the new triune god of the 18th Century: Reason, Natural Law and Progress. This god offered a new future of utopian perfection. It was the dawn of a new era after the long night of darkness, superstition and ignorance. Humanity was finally on the threshold of its long awaited destiny. The Age of Reason embraced the philosophy of natural law and of natural rights; it celebrated the powers of human Reason and of sciences. Harmonious nature, expressed through its laws, ensured the possibility of Progress and the advance of civilization. The belief in Progress dominated the age. It celebrated the conviction that, with the passage of time, each generation would improve. The Enlightenment faith ceased to fear God and the devil. God was no longer the God of love and redemption; He became the First Cause of a marvellous universe to be discovered, explored and explained by human Reason. The symbol of the Cross was replaced by the symbol of the Watchmaker: God was reduced to a principle of explanation. In other words, there was little room left for Christianity in such an enlightened age. Cultural elites turned away from the Christian faith, and the church lost its cultural leadership and prestige. It was relegated to a small area of private life. The ideas of the Enlightenment were propagated widely by a group of cosmopolitan intellectuals known as the philosophers. They were literary people, professors, economists, political scientists, publicists and social critics. They read the major works of this age of genius and recast these works in such a way as to capture the interests of the educated reader. They were men of letters in an age of newspapers and magazines. The philosophers embraced Reason as the scientific method to explain reality and human experience. They applied rational

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