Pingos: uplifted mounds from frost heaving Slope stability: Sx=WsinT Ny=WcosT Facor of safety = Resisting forces/driving forces

Friction (u) and Cohesion (c) depends on area) Resistance = c(A) + N(u) Water Force: U Factor of safety = R/S = cA + (WcosT U)u / WsinT Waves to make it more safe: -Drainage -Scaling (remove dangerous rocks from mountain wall) -Retaining wall -Mechanical slope stabilization (horiz. Poles) -Protection sheds -Draped Mesh -Catch Fences -Warning fences Risk = Likelihood x consequence

Resources vs. Reserves: -Resource: minerals/rocks that can be extracted to obtain a useable commodity -Reserves: confirmed portion of resource that can be extracted at profit -Magmatic deposits: important accumulations of metals from magma -Pegmatites: valuable melt from last stages of cooling -Gravitational settling: heavy minerals crystallize first at the bottom -Immiscibility: separation of liquids in magma -Vein (load) deposits: fluids move along fractures and cool -Disseminated deposits: distributed throughout body Petroleum traps: -has porous, permeable reservoir rock and impermeable cap rock -Stratigraphic traps: Pinch out, unconformity, reef -Structural traps: anticlines, fault traps, salt domes (Diapirs) Alt Energy: -Geothermal (non renewable) -Renewable -inexhaustible -minimal env. Degredation

-not burning fuel (so not biomass) and not increasing atmo. Carbon -shorter lead time to implement technology Geophysics -properties -density (gravity and seismic methods) -conductivity, resistivity (radar) -magnetics (electric/magnetic methods) -natural radioactivity (downhole logging methods)

CH1 Intro Uniformitarianism: things that happen now happened in the past CH2 Minerals Ferromagnesian silicates: dark Nonferro silicates: light CH3 Igneous Aphanitic: fine grained Phaneritic: coarse Porphyritic: phenocrysts/groundmass Glassy Pyroclastic Pegmatic (large interlocking crystals) Felsic/Granitic Comp Mafic/Basaltic Comp Inermediat/Andesitic Comp ****Bowen s rxn series**** Magma Crystal settling: magmatic differentiation when denser minerals sink beneath liquid Assimiltation: incorporation of foreign materials into lava Partial melting: magma will be more felsic than parent material CH4 Volcanoes: Basaltic lava: pahoehoe and aa, scoria Caldera: crater-like depression Fumarole: vent for gases of volcano Shield: basaltic, lava tubes, calderas Cinder/Scoria: basaltic Composite: andesitic

Lahar: mudflow CH5 Weathering Frost wedging: talus slopes form at base of steep slopes from broken rocks Unloading: reduced pressure causes cracking (not joints) Thermal Expansion and Biological Activity Dissolution: dissolving Oxidation: oxidizing Hydrolysis: chem rxn with water -Chem weathering causes spheroidal weathering and scaling Differential weathering: different masses and types of rock weather at different rates Interface: where two systems interact Regolith: layer of rock fragments from weathering Humus: organic matter -OAEB C horizons Pedalfer: Fe + Al, clay, forests Pedocal: CaCO3, caliche (calcite), grassland Laterite: Fe + Al, leaching, tropical CH6 Sed Rocks Diagenesis: all the chem, phys, bio changes that happens to rocks after they are moved Lithification: compacting (mech) or cementing (chem) sediment Detrital Sed Rocks: both chem and mech weathering -classified by particle size -fissibility: separates into thin layers -Sorting: degree of similarity in particle size -Conglomerate is poorly sorted and rounded -Breccia is angular so didn t travel as far Chem Sed Rocks: travel in solution -Dolostone, Chert, Evaporites, Coal Clastic: broken texture (all Detrital) Nonclastic: interlocking crystals CH7 Meta Rocks -Contact/Thermal metamorphism (rock is intruded by magma) -Hydrothermal metamorphism (chemical alterations by fluids) -Regional metamorphism (high pressures and high temperatures, mountain forming) -Burial meta (low parts of basins close enough to geothermal gradient)

-Geothermal gradient -Confining pressure -Differential stress -Chemically active fluids Index minerals: indicate a metamorphic environment Migmatites: half igneous, half meta Shields: flat expanses of igneous and meta rocks on continent interiors CH8 Geo Time Relative Dating Law of Superposition Principal of Orig. Horiz Principal of cross-cutting relationships Inclusions Angular unconformity: tilted rocks are overlain by flat rocks Disconformity: more common, but less obvious: layers are parallel Nonconromity: rock layer is eroded then covered by new layer Eons: Phanerozoic had evolutionary trends -Eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic -Periods (Hadean, Archean, Roterozoic / Cambrian) -Epochs Ch9 Mass Wasting Angle of repose: steepest angle before slide Fall, Slide, or Flow Rock Avalanche, slump (slow and short), Rockslide/Debris slide (one of the fastest) Debris flow (rapid flow of soild and water) Lahar (volcanic mud flow) Earthflow (slow debris flow in humid area during rain or snowmelt) Creep (gradual movement by freezing/thawing) Solifluction: very slow, common in permafrost areas or when water can t escape CH10 Running Water Infiltration capacity: how much water can be in soil Laminar flow: straight flow Turbulent flow -depends on flow velocity from gravity

Velocity depends on: -Gradient (slope: shape and size of channel) -Discharge (amount of water: D = width x depth x velocity) -Longitudinal profile (head to mouth) -Base level: where water heads to (Ultimate base level is sea level) Dissolved load Suspended load -depends on water velocity and settling velocity (to drop load) Bed Load: (saltation: leaping of particles) Capacity: max amount of particles (depends on D) Competence: max size of particles (depends on square of velocity) Alluvium: well-sorted materials deposited by a stream Point bars: deposit of land on inside point of bend Floodplain: valley inundated during a flood -natural levees, back swamps, tributaries Alluvial fans: deposit load b/c velocity drops Deltas: where stream enters ocean or lake Distributaries: tributary that provides shorter path to base level to drop of sediment Meanders: wide curves of river, have cut banks at corners -cutoffs create oxbow lakes -incise meanders cut down into land Drainage basins: -Dendritic (branching), Radia, Rectangular, Trellis (parallel streams) CH11 Groundwater Zone of aeration: above the water table -Belt of soil moisture (near surface) -Capillary Fringe (above water table) Zone of saturation: pores are completely filled with water Gaining streams: groundwater adds to streams Losing streams: streams add to groundwater Porosity: pore spaces, how much water can be stored Permeability: ability of a material to transmit a fluid (size of pore spaces) Darcy s Law: V = k (h/l) h: height b/w recharge and discharge l: length of flow

Perched water table: water is stopped by aquitards Wells: -Drawdown: water table around well decreases -Cone of depression: increases the gradient around well so more water comes in -Artesian wells: groundwater rises b/c pressure Hydraulic head: height between recharge and discharge points Hydraulic gradient: drives the flow (hydrostatic gradient = still water) Q=kiA Q: Flow

k: permeability

i: head gradient ((h/L0

Karst landscape: water table drops, so underwater lakes turn into caves and may collapse CH17 Earth s Interior Moho: Mohorovicic discontinuity: separates crust from mantle (P waves) P wave shadow zone: direct seismic waves are absent: proves moho