Table of Contents

Table of Contents......................................................................................................................................1 OBJECTIVES SPECIFIED:.....................................................................................................................1 ASSUMPTIONS:......................................................................................................................................1 Since we did not have a model to test in a wind tunnel, a number of parameters have been assumed from other production business jets. These parameters are .....................................................................1 INITIAL WEIGHT ESTIMATIONS:.......................................................................................................2 For a twin turbo prop aircraft it is seen that the We / Wo = 0.59..........................................................2 WING LOADING ESTIMATION:..........................................................................................................3 ASPECT RATIO ESTIMATION:............................................................................................................4 SHAPE OF THE WING:..........................................................................................................................5 FUSELAGE DIMENSIONS:....................................................................................................................7 THRUST:................................................................................................................................................10 SIZING OF EMPENNAGE:...........................................................................................................12 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF THE FUSELAGE:...............................................................................13 WING POSITIONING:..........................................................................................................................14 AFT AND FOREMOST POSITIONS OF CG:......................................................................................15 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE:..............................................................................................................16

OBJECTIVES SPECIFIED:
PAYLOAD OF 2 PILOTS, EACH PILOT WEIGHING A MINIMUM OF 100 KG 12 PASSENGERS WITH LUGGAGE; EACH WEIGHING 120KG 2 CREW EACH WEIGHING 80KG GREAT CIRCLE RANGE OF 2500NM

ASSUMPTIONS:
Since we did not have a model to test in a wind tunnel, a number of parameters have been assumed from other production business jets. These parameters are 1) 2) 3) 4) Zero lift drag Cdo Horizontal and vertical tail sizing for a 12 seater business jet Zero lift from fuselage and engines In places where data on Turbo-fan engines are absent, we have assumed the data for Turboprop engines. -1-

Also, we have used the Raymers approach to design this aircraft. Thus a number of empirical relations have been used for estimations of parameters such as 1) Fudge factors for tubed steel 2) Ratio of empty weight to take off weight 3) Empennage weight and wing weight estimations

INITIAL WEIGHT ESTIMATIONS:

For a twin turbo prop aircraft it is seen that the We / Wo = 0.59 Wo = takeoff weight We = empty weight -2-

Thus the equations are We / Wo = 0.59 Wo We = Wpayload + Wfuel (1) (2)

The fuel fraction for business jets ranges from 0.25 to 0.4 Wf/Wo = 0.3 (3) Wpayload = Crew + Pilots + Passengers = (80*2) + (100*2) + (120*12) = 1800kg Wo = Wpayload / (1 We/Wo Wf/Wo) = 1800/(1 - 0.59 - 0.3) = 16363 kg Weight Breakup:
Components Passenger Weight Crew Weight Fuel Weight Empty Weight Weight Unit Percentage 8.8 % 2.2 % 30 % 59 %

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1440 kg 360 kg 4909.09 kg 1 9654.54 kg 5

WING LOADING ESTIMATION:

Now that the total weight of the aircraft is known, the wing loading, which is conventionally the ratio of all up weight to surface area of wings, can be estimated since wing loading is a strong function of aspect ratio.

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The Hawker 100 resembles the aircraft we are designing. It is a 10 seater aircraft with a range of 3010nm. Also, its thrust to weight ratio and empty mass fractions are very close to the values that we have obtained. Thus we assume a wing loading which is roughly the same as the Hawker 100s. It has a wing loading of 404kg/m2 Hence we have assumed a wing loading of 400 kg/m2. Wo / S = 400 kg / m2 => S = 40.90 m2

ASPECT RATIO ESTIMATION:

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Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the square of the wingspan to the surface area of the wing. From the table above, for a twin turboprop, the equivalent aspect ratio can be approximated to be equal to 9.2 i.e. A = b^2 / S 9.2 = b^2 / 40.90 b = 19.40 m Wingspan = 19.40 m Half Wingspan = 9.7 m

SHAPE OF THE WING:

The wingspan, surface area and aspect ratio are already known. Taper ratio is the ratio of tip chord to root chord Assuming the entire wing to be tapered with a taper ratio of 0.45. This is because of structural reasons. If the taper ratio is one, the most amount of lift is produced but structurally due to a uniform distributed load the structure becomes weak mechanically. If the taper ratio is zero the structure is physically very strong but is aerodynamically inefficient since a lot of lift producing area is lost. A taper ratio of .45 is the optimum value taking structural safety and lift producing ability into account. Root chord = 2 * S / ( b * ( 1 + k ) ) = 2 * 40.9 / (19.4 * ( 1+ 0.45 )) = 2.91 m Tip chord = k * (root chord) -5-

= 0.45 * 2.91 = 1.31 m

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC):

MAC = 0.667 * (k + 1 / ( 1 + k ) ) * (root chord) = 0.667 * (0.45 + 1 / ( 1+ 0.45 ) * (2.91) ) = 2.21 m

WING SWEEP:
Wing sweep is the angle made by the perpendicular to the fuselage and the leading edge of the wing. It is required because: Improves stability by providing a natural dihedral effect. Helps delay Drag Divergence by reducing the free stream velocity of air that the wing sees.

The wing sweep trend curve gives us a sweep angle of 20 degrees for Mach 0.7. Every 10 degrees of wing sweep provides a Natural Dihedral of 1 degree. Therefore, this translates to an effective dihedral of 2 degrees.

DIHEDRAL:
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Dihedral is the angle made by Wing with the ground as seen from the Front View. The reason for having a Dihedral is to improve Roll Stability. The greater the Dihedral the greater the moment required to rotate the aircraft about the longitudinal axis.

Since the Sweep already provides 2 Degrees of Natural Dihedral, the Dihedral of the wing is taken as 3 degrees, giving an effective Dihedral of 5 degrees

FUSELAGE DIMENSIONS:
Business jets usually have a 2 abreast seating arrangement. This is what we have considered in our design. -7-

The width of a typical First Class aircraft seat is 0.7m Width of aisle is 0.6 m Therefore total internal width required = (2*0.7) + (0.6) = 2.0m Assuming a skin thickness of 0.2 m The External Diameter of the fuselage = 2.0 + 2*0.2 = 2.4 m Pitch of First Class seat = 1.2 m ; Door Width = 0.6 m We have also considered two conference tables as the design is of a business jet, each of Length 0.75m Total Cabin Length = ( 1.2 * 6) + ( .75 * 2) + 0.6 = 9.3 m Non Cabin Length (Toilet, Cockpit, Service module and Cargo Bay) = 7.5 m Length of Nose = 1.5 m Total fuselage length = 9.3 + 7.5 + 1.5 = 17.7 m

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Fig: Fuselage Layout

Fig: Fuselage Layout -9-

THRUST:
Raymer quotes a value of 0.32 for the ratio of thrust to take off weight for a business jet, assuing the same in our design: T/Wo = 0.32 T = 0.32 * 16363.34 = 51368.73 N T per engine = 25684.34 N The Pratt & Whittney 300 turbofan engine family produces 4,500 to 7,000 pounds thrust.
Engine Name Mechanica l Pounds PW308 Series PW307 Series PW306 Series PW305 Series 7,000 6,400 6,000 4,700 Height (Inches ) 50 47 45 45 Width (Inches ) 46 41 38 36 Length (Inches ) 84 86 76 81

From this table it is clear that the PW 305 turbofan engine is ideal since it produces 4700 pounds of thrust which is equivalent to 26KN of thrust. Thus choosing this engine for our design,

Engine Weight = 432 Kg SFC= 0.06825 Kg/ N- hr

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AIRFOIL:
The airfoil we have selected is one of the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) series airfoils. The airfoil selected for the wing is the NACA 0213. This airfoil is also seen on the Cessna Citation Business jets. The last number stands for the camber and the next two for the thickness. The airfoil profile, its boundary layer and pressure variations with alpha along with polars at a Reynolds number of 55 million are shown below

PROFILE

Cp VS - 11 -

Cl VS CD

SIZING OF EMPENNAGE:
The Horizontal and Vertical stabilizers collectively are called the empennage of the aircraft. We have taken the Cessna Citation CJ3 as a reference since it is a 10 seater aircraft of similar flying characteristics as our aircraft.

Fig: 3 View Diagram of Cessna CJ-3 The tail has been sized by taking the ratio of wing area to the horizontal and vertical tail areas of the above aircraft and then applied to our own design. This yields a horizontal tail area of 8.2 m2 and a vertical fin area of 7.04 m2.

WEIGHT ESTIMATION OF WING AND EMPENNAGE:

The weight for the wing and stabilizers have been assigned based on the weight estimations for general aviation aircraft as given by Raymer. Wing weight = 2.5 * (wing planform area in ft^2) = 1076.4kg Horizontal stabilizer weight = 2 * (tail planform area in ft^2) = 176.5kg Vertical stabilizer weight = 2 * (tail planform area in ft^2) = 151.56kg

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WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF THE FUSELAGE:

The whole aircraft was assumed to be made of 3 cylinders.

Mass of fuselage = MTOM (Mpayload - Mfuel Mwing 2*(Mengine)) = 6522 Kg

Part cyl1 cyl2 cyl3 Percent age Weight 0.02 0.76 0.22 Weight 130.441 4 4956.77 4 1434.85 5 6522.07 UNIT kg kg kg kg 9.161 m C.G. UNIT Momen t 150.007 6 36382.7 2 23215.9 6 59748.6 9 UNIT Nm Nm Nm Nm

1.15 m 7.34 m 16.18 m

C.G. distance from nose

The C.G. of the Fuselage with the empennage with the engines was similarly calculated to be 10.27m from the nose. The center of gravity of the engine is taken at the CG of the vertical stabilizer. The normal position of the engines is assumed to lie on the axis of rotation of the aircraft. Therefore there is negligible moment caused by the engines about the CG of the aircraft.

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WING POSITIONING:
The CG of the fuselage alone is found by taking the ratio of the summation of moments caused by all components to the summation of weights of all components. This gives a CG of the fuselage at 10.27 m from the nose. Now the wing position is obtained by moving it along the fuselage and noting where the %MAC changes from negative to positive. A minimum stability margin of 5% MAC is assumed for this design.
WING LE 7.8 7.82 7.84 7.86 7.88 7.9 7.92 7.94 7.96 7.98 8 8.02 8.04 8.06 8.08 8.1 8.12 8.14 8.16 8.18 8.2 8.22 WING CG 10.44438 10.46438 10.48438 10.50438 10.52438 10.54438 10.56438 10.58438 10.60438 10.62438 10.64438 10.66438 10.68438 10.70438 10.72438 10.74438 10.76438 10.78438 10.80438 10.82438 10.84438 10.86438 CG A/C 10.29594 10.29817 10.3004 10.30263 10.30486 10.30709 10.30932 10.31155 10.31378 10.31601 10.31824 10.32047 10.3227 10.32493 10.32716 10.32939 10.33162 10.33385 10.33608 10.33831 10.34054 10.34277 WING AC 10.11274 10.13274 10.15274 10.17274 10.19274 10.21274 10.23274 10.25274 10.27274 10.29274 10.31274 10.33274 10.35274 10.37274 10.39274 10.41274 10.43274 10.45274 10.47274 10.49274 10.51274 10.53274 (CG-AC),% MAC 8.286454 7.482715 6.678977 5.875238 5.0715 4.267762 3.464023 2.660285 1.856546 1.052808 0.24907 -0.55467 -1.35841 -2.16215 -2.96588 -3.76962 -4.57336 -5.3771 -6.18084 -6.98458 -7.78831 -8.59205

The highlighted rows show the point where the aircraft moves from being unstable to stable.

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Plotting a graph of leading edge position to % MAC

For stability margin of 5 % MAC, the wing leading edge position is found to be 8.13 m from the nose. The wing is fixed at this position for which the aircraft CG lies at 10.33m from the nose.

AFT AND FOREMOST POSITIONS OF CG:

The aft most position of CG has been estimated as 10.33m from the nose as given above so as to ensure a minimum stability margin of 5% MAC. The fore most CG position for business jets is usually restricted by stability margin not exceeding 10% MAC. This is calculated to be at 10.34 m from the nose.

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TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE:
Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air, usually starting on a runway.

= [ 2 * 16858 * 9.81 / (1.225 * 2.2 * 40.9) ] ^ (0.5) = 53.96 m/s

To ensure a margin of safety during take-off, the lift off velocity is typically 20% higher than the stalling velocity. Thus, Vlo = 1.2 Vs = 1.2 * 53.96 = 64.75 m/s Since velocity varies from 0 to Vlo, the average lift over the whole take-off is calculated considering 70% Vlo for the rolling resistance. L = 7145.354 N D = 714.5354 N = Coefficient of rolling friction between the rubber tyres and the tarmac = 0.02 Take off distance = Slo = 1.44 * W^2 / [g**S*Clmax * (T (D + (W L)avg) ) ] Slo = 704.536 m 710 m Thus the minimum distance for take-off was found out to be 710m

Fig: Take-off Run

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LANDING PERFORMANCE:
Landing is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from flying in the air to touch down and a final stop on the runway.

Vs = 53.96 m/s To maintain a factor of safety Vt = 1.3 Vs = 1.3 * 53.96 = 49.106 m/s
Considering 70% Vt as average drag from when the aircraft touches the ground to when it stops in the rolling resistance consideration. The aircraft employs spoilers which 1. Reduce lift to Zero 2. Increase aerodynamic drag by 10% D = 838.86 N = Coefficient of rolling friction between the rubber tyres and the tarmac = 0.4 Increase in the value of is caused by brakes being applied Considering the additional 10%, D = 922.445 N Landing distance = Sl = 1.69 * W^2 / [g**S*Clmax * (D + (W L)avg) ] = 618.206 m

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EMERGENCY CONDITION: ONE ENGINE FAILURE:

There may be a chance that one of the two engines that power the aircraft may fail due to many reasons. Some of the most common causes of failure are Bird Hits. In such a scenario, the aircraft must be able to sustain itself in level flight with the help of a single engine and be able to power itself to a safe landing at the nearest airport of airstrip. Taking the Best Cl/Cd value for the airfoil selected we have, Cl/Cd = 20 We get Cd for airfoil = .006939 For a flight speed of Mach 0.7, The drag can be estimated as: 40.901 = 8014.14 N This drag is for the airfoil alone. We double this drag to account for Drag due to the body and appendages. D = 8014.14* 2 = 16.038 KN Each engine can produce 26KN of thrust, thus the single engine can provide enough thrust to counteract the drag that the aircraft encounters. It is safe to fly the aircraft on a single engine in case of failure of one of the two engines. When such an event occurs, due to only one engine producing trust and the other now producing drag, a resultant yawing moment is caused. This moment needs to be countered by an opposing moment by the rudder. The physical and power sizing of the rudder is beyond the scope of our project. NOTE: The engine would have to be operated at a very high power setting, this would mean that the range of the aircraft would reduce and also it is advisable to land the aircraft at the closest runway. D= Cd * (1/2) * * V^2 * S = 0.006930 * 0.5 * 1.127* (0.7*320)^2 *

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RANGE:
The maximal total range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing, as limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft, or cross-country speed and environmental conditions in unpowered aircraft. A great circle, also known as a Riemannian circle, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane which passes through the center point of the sphere, as distinct from a small circle. Any diameter of any great circle coincides with a diameter of the sphere, and therefore all great circles have the same circumference as each other, and have the same center as the sphere. A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on any given sphere. Every circle in Euclidean space is a great circle of exactly one sphere. For any two points on the surface of a sphere there is a great circle through the two points. The minor arc of a great circle between two points is the shortest surface-path between them. In this sense the minor arc is analogous to straight lines in spherical geometry. The length of the minor arc of great circle is taken as the distance of two points on a surface of a sphere, namely great-circle distance. The great circles are the geodesics of the sphere

Fig: Great Circle For our design, our 12-seater Business Jet has a Great Circle Range of 2500 NM = 2500 * 1.85200 Km = 4630 Km To calculate the Range, we use the Breguet Range Equation; For steady level flight; T = D and L = W or, W= L= D(L/D) = T(L/D) Also, (dW/dt) = - (W/ (L/D)Isp) Therefore; - 19 -

We can integrate this equation for the change in aircraft weight to yield a relation between the weight change and the time of flight:

where Wi is the initial weight. If W is the final weight of vehicle and t(initial) = 0; the relation between vehicle parameters and flight time, tf , is:

Range is the flight time multiplied by the speed: Therefore we have:

For our design, assuming that during flight the engines are cut down to 70% of the max thrust; Plugging in the values we get: Range = (0.7 * 320) * (20) * (0.068258) * ln (16363.64 / 11454.55) / 0.7 = 4997 Km 5000 Km This is clearly greater than 4630 Km Thus we have achieved our goal of designing an aircraft with a Great Circle Range of 4630 Km.

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Fig: Fuselage

Fig: Tail Plane

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Fig: Aircraft Side View

Fig: Aircraft Top View - 22 -

Fig: Aircraft ISO View

Fig: Aircraft with Induced Drag and Streamlines - 23 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Principles of flight John D. Anderson 2) Aircraft design : A conceptual approach Raymer 3) Aircraft Design Projects, Lloyd R Jenkinson

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