Earths Energy Budget

Global energy balance Main point: the Earth absorbs insolation and re-emits outgoing terrestrial radiation and these two are in balance Why doesnt all insolation reach the Earths surface? 3 processes of scattering, reflection and absorption take place in the atmosphere 1. Scattering accounts for about 7% of insolation Short wavelengths (insolation is of a short wavelength) are most easily scattered by gas and dust molecules in the atmosphere. This process involves redirecting the insolation towards a different direction. Trivia: scattering is responsible for blue skies, as blue light is scattered around four times as much as red light because of the shorter wavelength of blue light. 2. Reflection accounts for about 27% of insolation, of which clouds 21% and ground 6% Reflected insolation simply returns to space, wavelength unchanged. Clouds are especially effective in reflecting insolation Reflection is dependent on albedo. albedo = reflection Albedo of snow can reach 90%, and when the sun is at a low angle (e.g. sunrise/set) albedo of water can reach 80%. OTOH when the angle > 40 albedo is about 2-4% (see notes) Absorption accounts for about 19% of insolation Gases, clouds, dust and haze all absorb certain wavelengths of insolation, which is transformed into molecular motion resulting in a rise in temperature Absorption is especially pronounced in the thermosphere and stratosphere which are warmer than expected because of the o absorption of short-wave ultraviolet radiation by oxygen and nitrogen in the thermosphere and o absorption of longer-wave UV radiation by ozone in the stratosphere Water vapour is another main absorber of insolation

The Greenhouse Effect Main point: long-wavelength terrestrial radiation bounces around the atmosphere a lot more than insolation, therefore the heating effect is a lot greater Greenhouse effect occurs when gases e.g. carbon dioxide and water vapour absorb and re-emit outgoing terrestrial radiation and pass it back to the earths surface or to other molecules. Poleward Heat Transfer Main point: Heat is transferred (by means of atmospheric circulation and ocean currents) towards the poles from the equator; this occurs because the equator receives a lot more energy than it emits and vice versa for the poles A point on the equator receives about 2.4 times more energy than a point near the poles. Why? Latitudinal difference in the amount of insolation received 1. At the tropics the sun is directly overhead, angle of incidence is the lowest therefore insolation more concentrated. OTOH at the poles angle of incidence is the highest therefore insolation less concentrated (more spread out in a sense). 2. Also, at the poles insolation needs to pass through more atmosphere to get to the surface. Processes of scattering, reflection and absorption do their work, less insolation received at poles. 3. Albedo higher at poles because snow and ice are the most reflective, and sunlight is more likely to be at lower angles. Latitudes near the poles emit more energy than they receive. Why? Radiation emission is proportional to the absolute temperature of the surface, not to insolation input Net radiation is positive at tropics and part of temperate region (insolation > outgoing radiation) but negative at higher latitudes (outgoing > insolation). Therefore the need for poleward heat transfer.

3.

Regional Temperature Variations

Main point: besides latitude, there are other factors that account for regional differences in temperature: proximity to sea, ocean currents, altitude, cloud cover, aspect

Forces influencing air movement

1. Pressure gradient force Differences in pressure generate winds from high to low pressure zones: difference = wind speed Direction of force is perpendicular to isobars Underlying cause of pressure difference is unequal heating across latitudes Coriolis effect

1.

Proximity to sea: proximity = seasonal temperature contrast Specific heat capacity of water higher than land: about 5 times more energy needed to raise water by 2C than land by 2C, so water takes up and gives up heat slower. Moderating effect Ocean currents Warm Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift transport heat from Caribbean towards British isles to keep winters mild Similarly Labrador Current flows down North Americas eastern coast cooling down summers Altitude: 1000m altitude = 6.5C (normal lapse rate) Low altitudes lose heat slower because of dense atmosphere, more dust and water vapour, which retain heat. OTOH high altitudes have thin atmosphere, less dust and less water vapour Cloud cover: cloud cover = insolation reaching surface and outgoing radiation E.g. rainforest areas with thick cloud cover: daytime 30C, nighttime 20C Compared to deserts: daytime 38-40C, night-time around 0C Aspect: equator-facing slopes are warmer than pole-facing slopes Noticeable mainly in temperate latitudes In the northern hemisphere south-facing slopes are warmer than north-facing slopes

2.

2.

In NH, winds are deflected to the right, and in SH, winds are deflected to the left. Dont ask me why! Its to do with the winds maintaining their inertial frame of reference wrt the earth or some rot like that. wind speed = Coriolis effect Technically, Coriolis force is a misnomer since the phenomenon is not a force per se.

3.

3.

4.

Friction Opposes pressure gradient force Slows airflow near surface, negligible at altitudes over a few km Geostrophic wind High in the atmosphere, the Coriolis effect balances out the pressure gradient force, because as wind gathers speed, Coriolis effect becomes increasingly significant. If the wind is fast enough it will travel parallel and not perpendicular to isobars as expected. Surface wind Friction slows down movement of air at the surface. As a result, Coriolis effect doesnt balance out pressure gradient force, and wind moves at an angle across the isobars, deflected towards the right in NH and left in SH

5.

Hadley cell, trade winds and ITCZ

Air subsides here, relatively dry because moisture released at equator, and adiabatic heating during descent reduces humidity Warm rising air releases latent heat and drives the cell. Also provides rainfall close to equator.

Oceanic Circulation
Accounts for about a quarter of poleward heat transfer. Drag exerted by winds blowing across the ocean causes the surface layer of water to move: therefore there is a relationship between oceanic and atmospheric circulation. Impt moderating force on climate in some places. Impt currents: Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift (warm), Labrador Current (cold)

Seasonal Climatic Variations

The earths axis isnt perpendicular to the plane of orbit around the sun, but tilted 23 from the perpendicular. At the June solstice, the suns rays strike the Tropic of Cancer (NH) vertically (angle of incidence is 0). This means that the Tropic of Cancer receives the most insolation on that day, and is hottest, causing summer. Same thing happens at the Tropic of Capricorn at the December solstice. Trade winds meet at a line called the ITCZ: zone of low pressure. Light winds, humid conditions. Wind blowing from high pressure zones towards ITCZ creates monsoons in SE Asia. At both equinoxes in March and September, the sun is vertical at the equator. Between these points, the angle of incidence varies, causing a variation in the amount of insolation received and the occurrence of seasons. Seasonal variation in daylight hours The length of daylight is determined by the position of the earth in its orbit. At the June solstice, locations above the Arctic circle (66N) receive 24 hours of sunshine, locations at 40N receive 15 hours, locations on the Tropic of Cancer receive 13 hours and locations on the equator receive 12 hours of sunshine (one reason for NH summer). This is reversed in the December solstice: length of daylight is a lot more in SH. At the equinoxes, the circle of illumination passes directly through the poles dividing the earth into half day and half night: all latitudes experience 12 hour days.

30N deserts

0 rainforests

This flow forms the trade winds

Other Cells Ferrel Cell: westerlies more fickle because cyclones and anticyclones disrupt flow Polar cell: subsidence near the poles produces a surface equatorward flow, deflected into polar easterlies. Clashes with westerlies at the polar front. See notes for pressure and wind patterns Monsoons: Monsoons result in Jan (winter) when winds blow from the Siberian high towards the ITCZ (inter-tropical convergence zone) around the equator, producing the dry NE monsoon; and in July (summer) when winds blow from the Indian Ocean towards the ITCZ over northern India, China, producing summer rains over S and SE Asia.