LAW OF INERTIA Bodies experiencing balanced forces will not move,else they will move with constant velocity

LAW OF PERIODS The period of revolution of a planet is proportional tothe 3/2 powers of the distance between the planet andthe sun.

LAW OF ACCELERATION The sum of all unbalanced forced acting on a body isp r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d b y t h e body

PASCALS PRINCIPLE A change in pressure of an enclosed incompressiblefluid is conveyed undiminished to every part of the fluidand to the surfaces of its container

LAW OF INTERACTION When a body exerts a force on another body, the otherbody exerts a force that is equal in magnitude as thefirst but has an opposite direction

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE The magnitude of the upward force, buoyant force, isequal to theweight of the displaced volume of fluid

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY The total amount of energy i n a n i s o l a t e d s y s t e m remains constant

TORRICELLIS LAWT he speed of efflux of a fluid through a sharp-edgedh o l e a t t h e b o t t o m o f a t a n k f i l l e d t o a d e p t h i s t h e same as the speed that a body (in this case a drop of water) would acquire in falling freely from a height.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM An impulse may also be regarded a s t h e c h a n g e i n momentum of an object to which force is applied

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM The total momentum of any group of objects remainsthe same unless outside forces acts on objects

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS If A is in thermodynamic equilibrium as B, and if B is int h e r m o d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m a s C , t h e n A i s therm odynamic equilibrium as C.

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION The force of attraction between a pair of objects in theuniverse is directly proportional to the product of theirmasses but is inversely proportional to the square of the separation

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It canonly change forms. In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the same.

LAW OF ELLIPSES Planets follow optical orbits w i t h t h e s u n o n o n e focus.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Theentropyo f a n isolated systemnot inequilibrium w i l l t e n d t o i n c r e a se over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.

LAW OF AREAS The line joining the sun and any one of the planets willsweep out equal areas in equal times

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS As temperature approachesabsolute zero,theentropy of a system approaches a constant minimum.

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

The energy associated with the work done by the netforce does not disappear after the net force is removed(or becomes zero), it is transformed into the KineticEnergy of the body.

en two electric charges i s proportional to their product and inversely proportionalto the square of the distance between them

LENZS LAW "The Induced current is such as to OPPOSE the CHARGEin applied field."

PARTICLE THEORY OF LIGHT Light is made up of little particles.They obey the same laws of physics as other masseslike baseballsand planets.They are tiny so the particles in two intersectingbeams do notscatter off each other.

LAW OF INDUCTION The inducedelectromotive forceor EMF in any closedc i r c u i t i s equal to the time rate of chan g e o f t h e magnetic fluxthrough the circuit.

QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT Both light and matter consists of tiny particles whichhave wavelike properties associated with them

PRINCIPLES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 1. The laws of nature are vali d i n e r t i a l f r a m e s o f reference2 . The speed of light is constant for a l l o b s e r v e r s i n inertial frames of reference. There cannot be a speedgreater that the speed of light.

HOOKES LAW Stress is directly proportional to strain, but ONLY up toa limit called the proportionality constant

LAW OF CONSERVATIO N O F T H E R M A L ENERGY The amount of thermal energy that an object gives off to the other object is equal to the thermal energy thatthe other object receives.

SNELLS LAW The ratio of the Sines of the angles of incidence and of refraction is a constant that depends on the media

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE The number of electron loss in a body is equal to thea m o u n t o f t h e electrons gained by the o t h e r o b j e c t close to the first.

OHMS LAW The law of physics that states that electric current isd i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v oltage applied to ac o n d u c t o r and inversely proportion a l t o t h a t conductor's resistance

PRINCIPLE OF SIMULTANEITY Events that are simultaneous in an inertial frame of r e f e r e n c e a r e n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s i n a n o t h e r f r a m e o f reference.

FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF NATURE Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

COULOMBS LAW alaw of electricity stating that the force of attractiono r r e p u l s i o n b e t w e

LAW OF SUPERPOSITION Two or more waves combine to form a new one.

LAW OF REFLECTION The angle Of reflection is equal to angle of incident.

fuses
Normally, the ampacity rating of a conductor is a circuit design limit never to be intentionally exceeded, but there is an application where ampacity exceedence is expected: in the case of fuses.

Specific resistance
Conductor ampacity rating is a crude assessment of resistance based on the potential for current to create a fire hazard. However, we may come across situations where the voltage drop created by wire resistance in a circuit poses concerns other than fire avoidance. For instance, we may be designing a circuit where voltage across a component is critical, and must not fall below a certain limit. If this is the case, the voltage drops resulting from wire resistance may cause an engineering problem while being well within safe (fire) limits of ampacity:

of voltage. With enough voltage applied, anyinsulating material will eventually succumb to the electrical "pressure" and electron flow will occur. However, unlike the situation with conductors where current is in a linear proportion to applied voltage (given a fixed resistance), current through an insulator is quite nonlinear: for voltages below a certain threshold level, virtually no electrons will flow, but if the voltage exceeds that threshold, there will be a rush of current.

Data
Tables of specific resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance for elemental materials (not alloys) were derived from figures found in the 78 edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
th

Superconductivity
Conductors lose all of their electrical resistance when cooled to super-low temperatures (near absolute zero, about o 273 Celsius). It must be understood that superconductivity is not merely an extrapolation of most conductors' tendency to gradually lose resistance with decreasing temperature; rather, it is a sudden, quantum leap in resistivity from finite to nothing. A superconducting material has absolutely zero electrical resistance, not just some small amount.

Contributors
Contributors to this chapter are listed in chronological order of their contributions, from most recent to first. See Appendix 2 (Contributor List) for dates and contact information. Aaron Forster (February 18, 2003): Typographical error correction.
Uses Of Signal and Function Generators

Insulator breakdown voltage

The atoms in insulating materials have very tightly-bound electrons, resisting free electron flow very well. However, insulators cannot resist indefinite amounts

A signal generator generates either audio or RF frequencies (depending on the capabilities and designed purpose of the generator) for testing other electronics equipment. Makes it easier to make tests on a device without having to have it "in circuit". It's a lot easier to test a piece of equipment on a work bench rather than trying to test it in place. A function generator supplies TTL (transistor to transistor) square wave pulses, sine and sawtooth wave forms for various testing

purposes. It's a lot easier to work on something on the work bench and being able to remove a circuit board and just supply power and a signal saves having to take a whole piece of equipment into the shop. Then again, you also can use an oscilloscope for troubleshooting when you jave a good, known signal to work with. That applies to both types of generator

Dynamo Hubs For Wind Turbines

Dynamo Hubs

A common way of learning more about wind turbines is to build your own with easily available cheap parts. For many years now old Sturmey Archer Dynohubs have been used for this purpose. Available at scrap prices, they generated 3 Watts at 6 Volts - perfect for lighting some LEDs or small bulbs. However as more and more people have caught the wind power bug, these 40 year old hubs have become more and more pricey and difficult to find, and are finally approaching the prices of new modern equivalents.

turbine and dynamo

they convert mechanical energy into electricity. Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker's function is, like a fuse, to break a circuit path when a predetermined amount of current is passed. In my opinion, circuit breakers should never be used to protect electronic devices such as radios, amplifiers or crossovers. Most common circuit breakers (thermal snap action) take far too long to open the circuit path. This does not mean that they are not useful. When they are properly selected they do a good job of protecting wiring and devices such as electric motors. Some breakers are self resetting. Others require manual resetting. I strongly recommend using a manual reset type. This will allow you to watch for any problems when the circuit path is restored