Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The Buddhas historical, economic, sociological and religious background Traditional accounts of the life of the Buddha The origins of the sangha
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G576: AS Buddhism
Origins of Buddhism The historical, sociological, economic and religious background in India at the time of the Buddha
Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the influence of the following on the Buddha: Hindu beliefs and practices;
conflict between the Kshatriya and the Brahmin castes. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the significance of the following: the four signs;
the nature of the Buddhas death. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: development of vinaya rules;
Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Spread of Buddhism The early spread of Buddhism Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the role of Asoka in spreading Buddhism, fighting corruption in the sangha and formalising the scriptures. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the concept of kamma;
karmic formations and karmic consequences. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically.
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nibbana
Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the concept of nibbana; the differences between nibbana and parinibbana. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the concepts of samsara and rebirth;
the cycle of dependent origination; the use of the Tibetan wheel of life to illustrate the cycle of dependent origination; the role of kamma;
the five khandas. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the three poisons/three fires; the role of the three poisons/three fires in keeping the wheel of samsara in motion. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the three refuges and their relative importance; the importance of the three refuges as a statement of faith, their role as a support for Buddhists, their mutual interdependence, how they might be applied in practice. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the concepts of anicca, anatta and dukkha;
the relationship between the three marks of existence and their relative importance;
whether belief in the three marks of existence is helpful or consistent with human experience. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically.
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Key Teachings, Attitudes and Practices The Four Noble Truths dukkha, samudaya, nirodha, magga (the eightfold path)
Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the significance of the teaching delivered in the Deer Park;
the concepts of and relative importance of the Four Noble Truths; the division of the eightfold path into prajna (wisdom), sila (morality) and samadhi (concentration);
the use of the Four Noble Truths. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the fourfold sangha;
the vinaya rules; the relative status of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis; the variations between forest and village dwelling bhikkhus; the relationship between the monastic sangha and the laity; the difficulties in following vinaya rules;
the ethical principles and practices for monks and lay people. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: the relative importance of the arhat and bodhisattva paths in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism;
the stages and perfections of the bodhisattva path. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically. Candidates should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following: differing attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism;
the status of the Buddha. Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically.
Where quotes from texts appear in examination papers, they will be taken from Buddhist Scriptures, trans. E. Conze, Penguin, (1969), 0140440887.
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Do you think you need to know the origins of a religion to understand its current teachings and practices?
Siddhartha Gautama lived in North East India. This area was very fertile as a result of the water supplied by the River Ganges.
At this time the area in which Siddhartha was living was undergoing great change. The political system was changing from republics to monarchies, more land was being cultivated, population was growing and, as cities developed, there was increased urbanisation. As a result many people in this period were questioning the prevailing religious ideologies, and many new religious movements developed around this time. You can read more about the religious background of the Buddha on the next page. Although it is difficult to assess the exact extent to which Siddharthas teachings were affected by his background, most Buddhist scholars have attempted to analyse the ways in which these factors may have influenced him.
MAKING LINKS
Sociological, economic and religious factors are interrelated. As you read the next sections try to think about how they could affect each other.
Do you think it is possible for a religious leader to deliver teachings which are unaffected by their cultural background?
Social factors
Monarchies and republics
Prior to the time of Siddhartha the Ganges Basin area had been ruled by republics. Most of these republics controlled relatively small areas. In most of these republics decisions were made by a committee of elders. Siddhartha belonged to the Shakya tribe. This tribe was unusual in that it mixed elements from republics and monarchies. The decisions tended to be made by a small aristocratic group of Kshatriyas. This group may have inherited their roles through family status, or through their own age and social importance. Siddharthas father was one of these leaders. During Siddharthas time the republics were losing power, and several monarchies were increasing in size and importance, including those at Magadha and Koshala. Siddhartha was acquainted with at least two of the kings of these growing monarchies, Pasendi of Koshala and Bimbisara of Magadha. Shortly after the death of the Buddha the republics collapsed. This may have been due to the existence of the monarchies. As the monarchies spread and covered larger areas they placed increased pressure on the republics. The republics may have been unable to withstand the pressure and power of these large monarchies. Some scholars believe that the relationship between the Buddha and the kings, as well as the unique leadership among the Shakya tribe, influenced the Buddhas attitude to leadership. They note that the Buddha organised the sangha so that decisions were made by consensus, like the republics, rather than appointing one leader. His experience of the monarchies may have led him to question the wisdom of leaving power in the hands of one person.
Urbanisation
Along with the expansion of the monarchies, cities and towns began to grow. They were often centred on the royal courts, but also developed where trade routes crossed. Within these cities new roles developed which did not fit into the traditional caste system. This caused some people to feel more uncertainty about their role in the contemporary social system. With greater population densities and increased trade relations, people within these urban centres were more likely to come into contact with new ideas. This made them more likely to question the status quo than those living in villages.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Note down how you think people might have reacted to the changes in society.
Fact Box
The class and caste system in India Traditionally India was divided society into four varnas or classes. Brahmins priests and scholars Kshatriyas warriors and rulers Vaishyas merchants Sudras labourers These classes were divided into hundreds of jatis or castes.
Economic factors
It is easy to think of India as a poor country compared to the West. Media images focus on problems such as those caused by the Asian Tsunami in 2004, and as a result we tend to assume flood and famine are common. This was not the case at the time of Siddhartha. The Ganges Basin area was being cleared of the forests which dominated it, and as a result the soil was very fertile. In addition the forests supplied many food resources for the inhabitants of the region. More land was being settled and cultivated for rice growing. This land could be irrigated using water from the Ganges, ensuring year-round cultivation. As rice cultivation began to increase and cattle rearing decreased, people were able to produce more resources for less effort. This gave people more resources to trade and allowed them to pursue a wider range of activities, less directly related to food production. Society could produce and trade a wider range of goods. They may also have had more leisure time, and sought alternative activities to fill this time. Some people argue that these changes were necessary in order for the Buddhist sangha to flourish. The sangha requires donations of food and other materials for its survival and relies on the laity to provide these. If the laity are barely meeting their own requirements they may not be able to provide these needs.
Do you think economic security gives people more freedom to explore religious ideologies and develop new religious philosophies?
MAKING LINKS
You need to be able to assess how far the factors described in this topic affected the Buddhas teachings. When you have studied chapters 2 and 3, return to this section and see if you can see any relationship between the Buddhas social and cultural experiences and his teachings.
Is it possible to separate religious beliefs and practices from culture? Similarly the religion practised at the time of the Buddha was not Hinduism as it would be recognised today, but an integral part of the culture. The prevailing religious elements of Siddharthas society were Brahmanism, based on the Vedic society of the Aryans, and folk religion, which covers a multitude of popular beliefs and practices. These ideologies were being challenged following the Aryan move into the Ganges Plain area, and the economic and social changes explained on the previous pages. As a result there were many new philosophies developing, of which Buddhism was one of the few survivors.
Fact Box
The origins of Hinduism The origins of Hinduism are traced to the Indus Valley civilisation, around 2600 BCE. Relatively little is known about this civilisation. Scholars have posited the existence of goddess worship based on the existence of pregnant female figures. Some scholars have also pointed to a seated figure found on a seal as a proto-Siva, a forerunner to the god Siva later seen in Vedic literature. The Indus Valley civilisation ended around 1300 BCE, possibly due to a migration of Aryans from the North. Scholars dispute whether this was a peaceful migration or an invasion. The Aryans are purported to have introduced the Vedic religion, which was still prevalent at the time of the Buddha, and the caste system.
Fact Box
Atman and Brahman In the Upanishads Brahman is generally seen as the underlying reality of the world which is unchangeable. The atman is seen as the essence of a person, which is identical to Brahman. There is speculation concerning how atman and Brahman can be rejoined after death. Whilst some Brahmins were well-respected, others appear to have relied on the patronage of kings. They were regarded as arrogant and as more concerned with their own wealth than the religious needs of the people. The Buddha was very critical of Brahmanical rituals, especially those involving expensive sacrifices.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Using two different coloured pens, create a mind map to record ideas which the Buddha agreed with, and those he rejected from the religious practices of his day.
Folk religions
There was a great variety of what we now term folk religion at the time of the Buddha. Folk religion was generally practised by the poorer members of society who could not afford the sacrifices demanded by Brahmanism. These practices included various forms of fortune telling and prophecy, the use of charms and attempts to placate spirits and demons. By the time of the Buddha some Brahmins had begun to practise these folk religions, possibly in exchange for recognition and respect from the common people. Some scholars think that it was within these folk practices that Brahman became personalised and viewed as a creator-God known as Brahma. The Buddhas attitude to the evil spirits found in folk religion was unusual. At the time the prevailing view was that these spirits acted capriciously and without reason. The Buddhas teachings included a being called Mara, who essentially controlled all the evil forces arrayed against humanity. By giving all evil a common source, which had been routed by the Buddha at the time of his enlightenment, Buddhism was able to show how evil could be overcome. The Buddhas attitude to folk religion was more ambivalent than that towards Brahmanism. The Buddha forbade the sangha from participating in such practices, but did not condemn them.
Why was the Buddha less hostile to folk religion than he was to Brahmanism?
Most shramanas rejected the teaching in the Vedas, however there were some shramanas who were (or had been) Brahmins, as we saw above. Most shramana movements were based on a search for lasting happiness, believing that this could not be found in contemporary society. Some shramanas believed that suffering was caused by ignorance, and thus developed practices designed to overcome ignorance. Buddhism and Jainism were both shramana movements which developed and grew into new religions over time. The other movements listed below were also part of the shramana movement.
Ajivakas
The Ajivakas were initially successful enough to be a serious rival to Buddhism and Jainism, but later declined in popularity. Their founder was Makkhali Gosala. The Ajivakas believed that all beings inevitably progressed from lower to higher life-forms, with the life of an Ajivaka ascetic as the ultimate life. Although the Ajivakas practised severe austerities, believing that starving to death was the best way to end their final life, they thought human action had no effect on this progression. Both the Buddha and Mahavira criticised the Ajivakas, believing that their views denied human responsibility for their own actions.
Jainism
Fact Box
Mahavira is a title meaning Great Hero. Mahaviras name was Vardhamana. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism was a contemporary of the Buddha, though the two never met. Jains believe that everything has a jiva or life-principle: even material objects such as stones. This jiva remains distinct from all else, unlike the atman which can be absorbed completely into Brahman. Jains aim to release the jiva from the constant cycle of rebirths. To do this they need to remove kamma gained in previous lives, which is seen as a form of matter, and avoid generating new kamma. This is done by practising austerities, such as fasting, and the avoidance of any harm to others. In Jainism kamma is gained through action rather than intention, so treading on an insect would result in kamma. The Buddha shared the view of Mahavira on rebirth and ahimsa (non-harming), but he thought that kamma was affected by intention as well as action.
Materialists
Materialists focused on the material aspects of life. They believed that any kind of self which might have existed during life ceased at death. As a result there were no kammic consequences for actions, and it did not matter in the long-term how people chose to act. In essence the Materialists believed that the only purpose to life, therefore, was to seek pleasure in the most effective way possible. Whilst this could include sense pleasures (such as good food, pleasant physical feelings and material possessions), the Materialists also sought pleasure in human relationships. In practice, most Materialists seem to have lived in moderate ways, taking pleasure from the simple things in life, such as their friendships with others. The Buddha characterised the Materialists views as annihilationist, and saw them as an extreme to be avoided through the practice of the middle-way. He felt that meditation provided the evidence that kamma and rebirth were true, and should not be denied.
Sceptics or Agnostics
At the time of the Buddha there were lots of contradictory religious teachings. These may have led to some people being disillusioned by the lack of a right answer in religious terms. One response to this contradictory and confusing religious background was that of the Sceptics. They felt that there was no way to determine the truth, and thus debate and discussion over religious matters was worthless. Instead they decided to avoid consideration of such matters for their own peace of mind and focus positively on the development of friendships. The Buddha referred to the Sceptics as eel-wrigglers because they refused to criticise other views, or suggest views of their own.
How did the Buddha react to his historical, sociological, economic and religious background?
As we have seen, at the time of the Buddha society was in a period of upheaval. As a result of economic and social changes Brahmanism was being challenged by the various shramana movements. The caste system was being challenged by increased urbanisation. One result of the challenges to the caste system was increased conflict between the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. The Brahmins had originally held the highest place within the caste system, due to their power over nature and the deities gained as a result of the Vedic sacrifices. This status was already being challenged by the increased variety of religious beliefs and practices. At the same time the Kshatriyas were gaining status. This was partly a result of the new monarchies. The Kshatriyas had more responsibility for controlling and enforcing the monarchs rule over their peoples. This led to increased support from kings for Kshatriyas. The declining status of the Brahmins was thus further challenged by the increased status of the Kshatriyas. Some Kshatriyas at the time of the Buddha felt they deserved the highest place within the caste system. We can consider whether the Buddha accepted some aspects of his society, rejected other ideas completely, and reinterpreted other ideas.
Can you believe that the Buddhas teachings were influenced by his background and accept that he revealed universal truths?
Folk religions The Buddha allowed the laity to practise folk religion but monks were forbidden from doing so. By placing the spirits and demons within samsara the Buddha essentially humbled them, according them little importance at an ultimate level. The Hindu Pantheon As above, the Buddha placed the deities within the cycle of samsara and this devalued their importance, since they no longer had any power on an ultimate level.
Materialism which he saw as life-negating. He also believed that if there were no consequences beyond this life then there was no impetus for moral behaviour. The concepts of Brahman and atman the Buddha said he could find no evidence to support these concepts.
MAKING LINKS
The concepts of rebirth, kamma and nibbana will be discussed in more depth in the Core Concepts and Key Teachings, Beliefs and Attitudes chapters.
Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain the significance of key episodes in the traditional accounts of the life of the Buddha.
How much do we know about the Buddhas life?
If we open many books on Buddhism we can read an elaborate account of the Buddhas life. These often start with a description of his early life as the pampered son of a king, protected and cosseted until he saw the four signs. As we have seen in the previous topic this is inaccurate, since Siddharthas father was not a king in this sense. So how did these accounts arise, and what do we really know about the Buddha?
Fact Box
Buddha or bodhisattva? Although we talk about the life of the Buddha this is a little imprecise. The term Buddha means enlightened one, so technically should only be used to describe Siddhartha once he has achieved enlightenment. Prior to this he is a bodhisattva. In Theravada Buddhism a bodhisattva is someone who has made a vow to become a Buddha under a previous Buddha, and is following the path to Buddhahood. What we do know about the life of the Buddha derives from accounts in the Pali Canon, particularly the sutta pitaka and the vinaya pitaka. However, these scriptures are focused on what the Buddha thought, rather than offering a biography of him. We catch glimpses of the Buddhas life, but no overall account. Later traditions have elaborated these glimpses to give a much fuller account of the life of the Buddha, though these cannot be relied upon for historical accuracy. They do, however, reveal much about the way in which followers of the Buddha regarded him.
Fact Box
The Pali Canon The Pali Canon was originally preserved as an oral tradition by members of the monastic sangha. It was recorded in written form (in the Pali language) in the 1st century BCE in Sri Lanka. The Pali Canon is often called the tipitaka (Pali) or tripitaka (Sanskrit), meaning three baskets. The original texts were written on palm leaves and stored in baskets. The text is made up of three sections: * sutta pitaka the teachings of the Buddha * vinaya pitaka the rules for the monastic sangha * abhidhamma pitaka philosophical speculations. When we examine the accounts of the life of the Buddha it is hard to determine historical fact from myth. It is arguably more important for scholars to determine the significance of the symbolism of key events within these accounts for Buddhists, then to try and discern the factual basis, if any, of the event.
Birth
Siddharthas conception is given symbolic importance in the traditional accounts. His mother Maya dreamed that a white elephant entered her side. Elephants symbolise power and majesty, the colour white represents purity, and white elephants are rare. This therefore symbolises that a rare, pure being of power had been conceived. Before Siddharthas birth Maya was travelling to her relatives home. It was considered normal practice to do so. On the way she stopped for a rest at Lumbini (see map on page 4). It was here she went into labour and gave birth. There are varying accounts of this event, however they are all exceptional. Generally Maya is said to have stood up holding onto a tree. In some accounts the trees lowered their branches for her to hold on to them. Siddhartha is born with little or no
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pain for Maya, in some accounts through her side, and welcomed by the gods. He stands up and walks seven steps, declaring that this would be his last rebirth. Siddhartha is believed to have been enwombed for precisely ten lunar months, the perfect amount of time. Ten lunar months is exactly 40 weeks, the ideal length of a single pregnancy according to doctors. These accounts show how special the Buddha was. The attendance of the gods at the Buddhas birth indicates his importance, but might also be used to show the subservience of the gods to enlightened (or soon to be enlightened) beings. The Buddhas awareness that this was his last rebirth again indicates that this was not the birth of an ordinary being, but one at the end of a long path. Within a week Siddharthas mother had died, and he was raised by his aunt Pajapati, and his father Suddhodana. Following his birth the astrologer Asita foretold that he would either see the four signs and become a Buddha, or become a Universal Monarch. Wanting his son to become a Universal Monarch, Suddhodana protected him from the four signs.
Should Siddhartha have left his wife and child in order to fulfil his own spiritual desires? Rahula and Pajapati later joined the monastic sangha. Does knowing this affect your views?
Early and late accounts of the renunciation Compare the level of elaboration in the accounts above with that of this description in the Sutta Pitaka: Later, while still young I shaved off my hair and beard though my father and mother wished otherwise and grieved with tearful faces and I put on the yellow robe and went forth from the house life into homelessness. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, The Life of the Buddha, BPS Pariyatti Editions, 2001 Most scholars do not even consider that this story should be taken as literally true. Indeed it is hard to imagine that Siddhartha had never encountered death, old age and sickness. In order for this to be the case he would have to have never had a childhood illness for example. The story is more likely to be a reflection of the way in which Siddhartha grew to be aware of these issues. There is suffering all around us, but most people erect mental barriers which stop us getting too disheartened by the suffering we see. Occasionally, however, these barriers are lowered and the reality of the suffering penetrates our awareness. Some people become so aware of this suffering that they feel called to react to it in ways beyond that of ordinary life. The story of the four signs is a symbolic way of explaining Siddharthas growing realisation of the suffering around him, and his desire to do something to change it.
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Ascetic practices
The Buddha followed an ascetic lifestyle for six years. During this time he studied with Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. He achieved the meditation states, or jhanas, of the sphere of nothingness and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. Siddhartha found these states blissful, but believed they did not offer a permanent solution to suffering. Siddhartha then practised austerities, aimed at subduing the appetites. These included holding the breath for long periods, and fasting. One account tells how when he was fasting he had become weak with hunger. A girl offered him some rice, which restored his strength. It was after this that he stopped ascetic practices and began the meditation which led to his enlightenment. The Buddha later claimed that his ascetic practices had taught him discipline and willpower; however they did not provide a cure for suffering. Siddhartha had learnt that neither the luxury of his childhood nor the asceticism of his adulthood provided the answers he was seeking. Thus in later times Siddhartha advocated a middle-way in his teaching that avoided both extremes. The Buddha found extreme asceticism unhelpful
Do you think the Buddhas teachings represent the middle way in todays society?
The Enlightenment
Siddhartha sat under a Bodhi tree and began his meditation. Mara appeared to try and prevent him from achieving enlightenment. Maras sons shot arrows at Siddhartha, but they turned to flowers before they hit their target. His daughters were sent to seduce Siddhartha, and Mara also tried to offer him control of the kingdom. Throughout Siddhartha remained serene and unaffected by these distractions. Finally Mara claimed that without a witness Siddharthas achievement would not be believed. At this point the Buddha touched the earth with one hand, and the earth quaked to bear witness to the Buddhas enlightenment. This dramatic account demonstrates the need to overcome negative emotions such as fear, lust and pride in order to achieve enlightenment. You can find out more about Buddhist attitudes to enlightenment in the Core concepts chapter on nibbana. The Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment in one night, and gained different insights during each of the three watches of the night. Firstly he gained the full knowledge of all his previous lives. Secondly he was able to see the birth and death of all beings, and understand the causes of rebecoming. Thirdly he knew that he had rooted out the three poisons, could see the world as it really is, and had therefore attained nibbana.
Are images like this intended to indicate historical events, or to symbolise the Buddhas triumph in overcoming the obstacles which block the way the enlightenment?
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Teaching
The Buddha began his teaching by returning to the ascetics he had practised austerities with. In the Deer Park at Sarnath the Buddha gave his first sermon. This is sometimes called Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma. This contained the kernel of the Buddhas later teachings, including the Four Noble Truths. The five ascetics gained enlightenment, and became bhikkhus.
MAKING LINKS
You can read more about the Deer Park Sermon in the Key Teachings, Beliefs and Attitudes chapter. The Buddha spent the next 45 years of his life travelling the Ganges Plain area and teaching others. During this time he established the monastic sangha, and the relationship between the laity and the monastic sangha. The Buddha is shown as being composed and polite in his debates and discussions with others. There are some accounts of the Buddha performing miracles, explained as made possible due to psychic powers gained during meditation. The ability of the Buddha to remain composed and polite in debate displays his success in removing the defilements of greed and hatred.
Death
The Buddha was 80 when he died. He had been ill in the time leading up to his death, but had still continued to travel on foot. Prior to his death the Buddha called the bhikkhus together, and asked if they had any questions. They did not, which some have taken to mean that the Buddhas teachings were well-established and understood. He also said that he had not considered himself to be a leader, and that upon his death he would not appoint a leader for the sangha. He recommended that the dhamma should be the guide for Buddhists, however it was not to be followed blindly, but tested against their own experiences. The Buddha died lying on his side in a state of meditation, under two trees which had bloomed out of season. This indicates that he had conquered all fears, even the fear of death. Upon his death the Buddha attained parinibbana, or final nibbana. He would no longer be born into the world of samsara. The Buddha was cremated, and his remains interred in stupas, which became a focus for pilgrimages.
There are many websites with detailed accounts of the life of the Buddha. Use these to construct a table showing the key events in the life of the Buddha, and show why they are important. Useful websites: * What do you think my friend? has an online version of an elaborate traditional account of the life of the Buddha by Venerable Narada. * Vri Dhamma also has a detailed account of the life of the Buddha. * Buddhanet has a useful article showing how Buddhists use events from the life of the Buddha as a teaching tool.
Do you think it matters whether someone takes the traditional accounts of the life of the Buddha literally or not?
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Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain how the monastic sangha was formed, and how the vinaya rules were developed.
Sangha means community, so refers to all Buddhists. However, it is often used to refer to bhikkhus and bhikkhunis or the monastic sangha. It is primarily the origins of the monastic sangha with which we are concerned in this section.
MAKING LINKS
You can find out more about the fourfold sangha in chapter 3 Key Beliefs, Teachings and Attitudes.
Does the way in which the vinaya rules evolved make them less authoritative than if they had been revealed as a whole by the Buddha at the start of his career?
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FURTHER RESEARCH
You can find excerpts from the vinaya pitaka, showing the origins of the rules in: * Bhikkhu Nanamoli, The Life of the Buddha, BPE, 2001. * Access to Insight website.
Do you think the Buddha had good reasons for initially refusing to set up an order of bhikkhunis?
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Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain how Asoka contributed to the development and spread of Buddhism.
Asoka came to power in the Magadhan empire (see map on page 17) in 268 BCE. He may have killed rivals to the throne to do so. Initially he was intent on conquest and was involved in several battles to gain land. Asoka appears to have shown some interest in Buddhism in 260 BCE, however this had little practical effect on his reign until 259 BCE after a particularly bloody battle for the Kalinga region (see map below). The theories of kingship Asoka learnt advocated expansion of the empire by conquest as part of the kings duties. However, Asokas first wife was a lay Buddhist. Buddhist theories of kingship emphasised the cultivation of peace. It is possible that the battle of Kalinga highlighted the dichotomy between these two ideas, and led to his decision to embrace Buddhism.
Why do you think the battle of Kalinga might have caused Asoka to become a more committed Buddhist?
Original sources
These edicts emphasise Asokas concern with the promotion of moral values: Rock edict 4 Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi [Asoka] promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behaviour towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders.
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Original sources
Rock edict 3 Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi [Asoka], speaks thus:[5] Twelve years after my coronation this has been ordered Everywhere in my domain the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall go on inspection tours every five years for the purpose of Dhamma instruction and also to conduct other business.[6] Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living beings is good, moderation in spending and moderation in saving is good. The Council shall notify the Yuktas about the observance of these instructions in these very words. http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
Asokas edicts, carved on rocks and pillars, encouraged his people to behave morally
Fact Box
Pillars and rocks We know about Asoka through 32 edicts which have been found on pillars and rocks throughout India. Most of these edicts focus on encouraging moral behaviour, especially the avoidance of harming living creatures.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Asokas edicts You can find translations of Asokas edicts at the website below. * Note down the general themes of these edicts. * Do you think that those who have claimed the edicts do not reflect Buddhism are correct? The edicts of King Asoka: http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
Mission
During Asokas reign Buddhists engaged in extensive missionary activity within India. Asoka sent embassies (possibly accompanied by bhikkhus) to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia and possibly Burma or Thailand to emphasise his policy of conquest in the dhamma. Asokas son, Mahinda, was a bhikkhu. Mahinda led a mission to Sri Lanka (previously called Ceylon). This mission was extremely successful, and Sri Lanka has remained a predominantly Buddhist country.
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Asoka made an effort to unite the sangha and force out corruption. He urged the sangha to convene a third Buddhist council. This council codified the dhamma and the vinaya. In doing so it became easier to ensure the vinaya was followed, and to penalise those who refused to comply with the vinaya rules. Asoka also targeted his financial support towards those members of the sangha who were actively supporting his reforming agenda.
Was Asokas support of Buddhism ultimately positive or negative for the long term success of Buddhism?
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Core concepts
Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain the key concepts of kamma, samsara and nibbana
Samsara
Samsara means wandering on. It is the name given to the cycle of birth and death. Although this concept is common within Indian religions it has been refined within Buddhism to reflect particular Buddhist concerns. The cycle has no beginning and no end until nibbana is achieved. Individuals transmigrate from one life to the next according to the kamma they have accrued. They can be born in one of six realms gods, demi-gods, human, animal, hungry ghosts and hell realms. Life in all of these realms is temporary, including the godly realms. Buddhists believe that when a being hears the dhamma and put it into practice they can break out of the cycle of samsara to achieve nibbana. It is often believed that birth as a human is lucky, since the human realm has the correct mixture of suffering and pleasure to encourage beings to seek a solution to suffering. Some Buddhists believe that these realms of existence should not be seen as literal places, but more as psychological states. You can read more about the process of rebecoming through dependent origination on the next page.
MAKING LINKS
These concepts will be explored more fully in the section on the Four Noble Truths on pages 2931.
Kamma
Kamma (karma in Sanskrit) means action. Essentially the law of kamma entails that every intentional act will have a consequence. This process cannot be prevented or overridden, and no-one can forgive or show mercy in order to circumvent the process of cause and effect. Since it is intentional or volitional actions which lead to kammic consequences, both thought and deed can be a kammic cause. Kamma is often used to refer to both cause and effect, however this is inaccurate. Thoughts, words or actions are the causes in the process and are referred to as kamma, kammic actions or kammic formations. These lead to consequences referred to as the fruit of kamma, kammic results or kammic consequences. When nibbana is achieved the Buddha or arhat no longer creates kammic formations, since their actions are such that they have been freed of samsara. They can, however, still experience kammic consequences, from earlier kammic actions. It is said that the Buddha had a painful splinter in his foot at one stage in his life as a kammic consequence for previous actions. This demonstrates that kammic consequences can never be avoided.
If a Buddha or arhat can still experience pain, can nibbana be considered to be freedom from suffering? Positive or skilful kammic actions are believed to generate positive kammic consequences, and negative or unskilful kammic actions are believed to generate negative kammic consequences. An action is unskilful (akusala) if it is based on greed, hatred or delusion, and skilful (kusala) if it is based on unselfishness, benevolence and understanding.
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Core concepts
Intention is the most important factor in determining kammic consequences in Buddhist thought. Thus an accidental murder will not cause the same level of kammic consequence as an intentional murder, though some negative kammic consequences for being unmindful are likely. It is impossible to know when a kammic consequence will occur. It could be immediate, or occur many lifetimes later.
Do you think it is right that an accidental murder should have less kammic consequence than an intentional one? Is the intention or the result more important when evaluating ethical action?
Nibbana
Nibbana will be covered in more depth at A2 level. This is an introduction to the concept of nibbana. Nibbana means to blow out, or to cover. Early understandings of nibbana seem to have been based around the idea of stopping greed, hatred and delusion (sometimes called the three fires or the three poisons), in order to starve the fires of samsara of fuel. When we have eliminated the three poisons our actions are neutral, as we are freed from both good and bad intentions, and we thus generate no kammic formations.
Nibbana is not
A place. Somewhere you go when you die. Heaven. An attitude.
Nibbana is
Freedom from greed, hatred and delusion. Seeing the world as it really is. Freedom from rebirth.
There are two levels of nibbana: *sa-upadhisesa-nibbana - nibbana with substrate *nirupadhisesa-nibbana or parinibbana nibbana without substrate. Nibbana with substrate is when a living being overcomes the three poisons, and ends mental forms of dukkha. In this state no karmic formations are created, though kammic consequences can occur. Parinibbana occurs when an enlightened being dies. At this point the five khandhas are not reformed leading to a new birth, and the physical existence of an individual ceases. They are now not subject to kammic formations or kammic consequences.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Write a list summarising the differences between nibbana and parinibbana. Which of these differences are most significant, and why?
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In its most simple form dependent origination takes the form of a simple formula: When this is, that is. This arising, that arises. When this is not, that is not. This ceasing, that ceases.
Essentially, this demonstrates the Buddhist teaching that nothing comes into existence through its own power, and all things are conditioned or dependent on prior causes. Although there are different formulations of the doctrine of dependent origination, one of the most common is that shown on the Wheel of Life (see diagram on page 22) of twelve links showing how we are trapped in the cycle of samsara due to craving (tanha) and ignorance (avijja).
Potter
3 4
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Man and woman embracing Man with arrow in his eye Man taking a drink from a woman Man picking fruit Pregnant woman Childbirth Corpse
This process is generally shown as a circle, since the twelfth link leads to the first. This cycle is operating simultaneously in every moment of existence, within one lifetime, and over three lifetimes. Within every moment our intentions lead to actions, and to results. When the links are described as operating over three lifetimes links 1 and 2 are said to relate to the past life, 39 to the present life and 1012 to a future life.
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Core concepts
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Summarise the cycle of dependent origination, including the places where it may be broken.
Would it be easier to break the cycle at the avijja link or the tanha link? How might a Buddhist break the cycle at these points?
Do you think the Wheel of Life is a good way to help people understand the complex teachings about samsara, dependent origination and nibbana?
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In this topic you will be able to explain the importance of the three refuges for Buddhists.
The three refuges (or triple refuge) are sometimes called the three jewels to symbolise their importance to Buddhists. When Buddhists decide to become Buddhists they often do so by reciting the three refuges. They repeat three times: I take refuge in the Buddha I take refuge in the dhamma I take refuge in the sangha. When Buddhists take refuge they are not trying to hide away or escape their own responsibilities. Instead they are seeking guidance and support in their search for nibbana. In essence taking refuge is a recognition of the desire to seek nibbana.
MAKING LINKS
You can find out more about the Buddha and the sangha in chapters 1 and 3, and the dhamma in chapter 3.
The Buddha
Taking refuge in the Buddha means recognising his importance as the ultimate teacher of the dhamma. The Buddha might be seen as a role model for Buddhists, who may try and follow his example. His achievement of nibbana can reassure Buddhists that nibbana is possible, and thus offer hope that they too may achieve it. Taking refuge in the Buddha does not entail worshipping the Buddha. Acts of worship may instead be performed in order to show respect for the Buddha or to enable the worshipper to develop generosity through the giving of offerings. Buddhists may use images of the Buddha as a meditation focus to help them develop particular qualities demonstrated by the Buddha. A Buddhist might show they have taken refuge in the Buddha by using his image or stories from his life as a meditation focus. They could also try to follow his example. In Theravada Buddhism Buddhists take refuge in the historical Buddha Shakyamuni Buddha. In Mahayana Buddhism Buddhists may take refuge in other Buddhas, for example Amitabha Buddha.
MAKING LINKS
Mahayana Buddhists have developed a specific understanding of the Buddha, quite distinct from that of Theravada Buddhists. You can read more about this on pages 4243.
The dhamma
The term dhamma has many meanings. Most commonly it is used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha. Taking refuge in the dhamma could be seen as trying to understand and implement the teachings of the Buddha. Dhamma also refers to universal truths. Some Buddhists claim that the Buddha merely revealed this universal truth in this particular time and place, but that the dhamma always exists. This attitude could affect the way they perceive the relative importance of the Buddha and the dhamma. The Buddha encouraged Buddhists to test his teachings against their own experiences. Whilst Buddhists are not required to have blind faith in the teachings, it could be considered that they need to have some trust in the validity of the teachings in order to embark on the Buddhist path.
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Core concepts
Fact Box
Meanings of the term dhamma: * Moments of existence (momentary dhammas). * Universal truth. * The teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha. * The path followed when one practises the teachings of the Buddha.
The sangha
Taking refuge in the sangha can refer to both the fourfold sangha (in other words the whole Buddhist community), or the monastic sangha. In taking refuge in the sangha a Buddhist might be showing respect and consideration for the monastic sangha. They could be recognising the role of the monastic sangha in providing support for the laity and each other, through their own example in following the Buddhas teachings. The monastic sangha might also provide teaching and guidance. The sangha as a whole might provide support and encouragement for each other.
Others, however, might be prepared to argue that one refuge is of more importance than the others. Some might claim that the Buddha is of more importance for the example he offers, or because it is his revelation of the dhamma which has allowed Buddhism to develop. Some might point to the eternal nature of the dhamma, and respond that the Buddha only revealed truths already in existence. Thus the dhamma should have precedence. Some might point to the fact that the sangha is the living out of the dhamma, and the refuge which can offer practical support today. It is also the sangha which has preserved the dhamma. The attitude a Buddhist takes on this issue is a personal matter, determined by his or her own beliefs and preferences.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Draw a Venn diagram with three intersecting circles. In each circle explain the unique elements of one of the three refuges. Where the circles intersect show points of similarity between the refuges.
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In this topic you will be able to explain the importance of the three marks of existence, and their relative status.
The three marks of existence, dukkha, anicca and anatta, are deemed to be the three defining characteristics of life. In some sense it is believed that when these marks are understood and accepted that nibbana can be achieved.
MAKING LINKS
You will explore the significance of these ideas in the section on The Four Noble Truths on pages 2931.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
When you have finished reading this section, make a list of similarities and differences between anicca and anatta.
Dukkha
Dukkha has been widely translated in the West as suffering. This is inaccurate as dukkha has much wider implications in Buddhist thought. Modern scholars tend to use the term unsatisfactoriness instead, though this may also seem to miss the nature of dukkha. Some Buddhist traditions refer to dukkha as being an ill-fitting chariot wheel. This is an attempt to convey the commonly-felt sense that there is something not quite right in our lives, even when things are not actively wrong in them. In Buddhist thought dukkha is categorised into three types. Dukkha-dukkha This is perhaps the type of dukkha we would ordinarily associate with suffering. It includes physical pain. It also includes mental suffering, such as grief at being separated from those we love, being upset because we do not achieve our desires, and the pain associated with birth, sickness, old age and death. This is the suffering caused by change, or anicca. We do not like change, and hope that things will remain the same. When they do not we get upset as we are attached to the former situation. For example, we may find it hard to adjust when we change jobs or move house. We want our relationships to remain constant and may get upset when our partners change their attitudes or behaviour. It is this form of dukkha which has often led to Buddhism being considered pessimistic. Buddhists claim that even happy experiences lead to dukkha, because they do not last. Thus we may be ecstatically happy when we buy a new camera. However, after a while we notice its faults. A new camera is released with better quality and functions. We become dissatisfied with our own camera, and crave the newly released one instead. Samkhara-dukkha This is perhaps the hardest form of dukkha to understand, but in Buddhist thought the most pervasive and important. It is often described as angst. It is a subtle dissatisfaction with life, perhaps caused by our failure to understand and control life. No matter how carefully we plan and investigate, some things will change in unexpected ways. No matter how hard we work and how much we achieve, we will still die. It is this transitory and fragile nature of our existence that leads us to a subtle dissatisfaction with life. The Buddha claimed that conditioned existence was by its very nature dukkha. You can read more about this in the following sections on anicca and anatta.
Viparinama-dukkha
Dukkha is often contrasted with sukkha, meaning comfort or ease. Some people claim that the Buddhist belief that all life is dukkha gives Buddhism a very pessimistic attitude to life. Buddhists do not see it in this way. They believe that by understanding the causes of dukkha they can prevent further dukkha from occurring.
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Core concepts
Does the Buddhist attitude to dukkha mean Buddhism is pessimistic, realistic or optimistic?
ACTIVITY (AO1)
When you have read the sections on anicca and anatta, design a leaflet for Buddhist children showing how failure to understand anicca and anatta might lead to dukkha.
Anicca
Anicca is usually translated as impermanence. The Buddha believed that everything was impermanent, and changing. Many of us might accept that change happens. We are obviously aware that things come into existence and cease existing. However, we often fail to apply this understanding to the things around us. We somehow expect them to remain the same. Some changes we can see happening and find easier to accept. This might include changes such as the progress of the seasons and damage and decay to belongings. At other times change is more subtle and it is easy to believe that things will remain the same. A building may appear to be a permanent structure, but eventually an accumulation of tiny changes will make it unsafe and it will require repair or demolition. It is because we expect things to remain unchanged that we become attached to them. When they do change we then experience dukkha. Anicca is intimately related to anatta, which will be discussed on the next page.
Anatta
Anatta means no inherent self. This idea was developed in contrast to the Hindu belief of an eternal, unchanging self. The Buddha could not find any evidence to support this view. This teaching is illustrated in the chariot analogy in King Milindas questions.
Original Source
King Milindas questions For it is in dependence on the pole, the axle, the wheels, the framework, the flag-staff, etc., that there takes place this denomination chariot, this designation, this conceptual term, a current appellation, and a mere name. Your Majesty has spoken well about the chariot. It is just so with me. In dependence on the thirty-two parts of the body and the five Skandhas [khandhas] there takes place this denomination Nagasena, this designation, this conceptual term, a current appellation, and a mere name. In ultimate reality, however, this person cannot be apprehended. Conze (translator), Buddhist Scriptures, Penguin Classics, 1959
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Nagasena argues that people are the same. The self cannot be attributed to any particular part of a human, nor to something separate from these parts. An individuals name is therefore just a term to refer to this particular collection of parts or khandhas.
Read the analogies given to explain rebirth in King Milindas questions and explain whether they are helpful in trying to understand how rebirth can occur when there is no self.
The chariot analogy in King Milindas questions demonstrates the Buddhist concept of anatta.
The 5 khandhas
Form Feelings (sensations) In Buddhist thought form refers to all matter. This includes the physical body, the five material sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body) and the objects they experience. These are the positive, negative and neutral sensations we experience as a result of our contact with the external world. We experience the world through our six senses touch, taste, smell, sight, hearing and mind. This is the seventh link in the wheel of dependent origination. This is the ability to identify or recognise the characteristics of things. It works on the sense data experienced by the six senses, and classifies it. This includes the volitions or intentions which determine our patterns of behaviour. These patterns of behaviour are conditioned by previous kamma, and are carried over into our next lives. This is the second link in the wheel of dependent origination. Consciousness in the Buddhist context is much wider that the Western concept. It includes what we might consider the conscious and the unconscious. It is the mental response to information gathered by the six sense organs. Consciousness also has the role of co-ordinating the variety of experiences we have, and making sense of them. This is the third link in the wheel of dependent origination.
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Core concepts
Fact Box
Mind in Buddhist thought In Buddhism, mind is not seen as a separate spiritual aspect, in that way it is in many dualistic philosophical traditions. Instead mind is seen as a sense organ in the same way as eyes, ears, etc. In fact, Buddhists often speak of the six senses, comprising touch, taste, smell, sight, hearing and mind. This is because mind is a sense organ that can be trained and developed through meditation. The only difference between mind and the other five senses is that mind senses ideas, thought and mental objects, while the other five senses experience external objects.
Fact Box
The 5 khandhas The 5 khandhas (skandhas in Sanskrit) are sometimes referred to as the 5 aggregates. There are also a variety of translations for the individual elements of the 5 khandhas. For example, in one book you might find a reference to feelings, and in another sensations. These are both translations of the same Buddhist term. This can make it confusing when you refer to several sources when studying this topic. If you refer to other books you may want to make a note of the different terms used in those books, and decide which terms you will use in your own notes.
Do you think that the teaching of anatta can help people become less selfish, and thus avoid dukkha?
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Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain the importance of The Four Noble Truths.
The Four Noble Truths are often said to encapsulate the Buddhas entire teachings. They were the first teaching the Buddha gave. They were revealed to the five ascetics the Buddha had practised with earlier in his life, in the Deer Park at Sarnath. The sermon is therefore called the Deer Park Sermon, or the Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma. The Four Noble Truths can be summarised as follows: First Noble Truth Second Noble Truth Third Noble Truth Fourth Noble Truth dukkha samudaya nirodha magga There is dukkha.. There is a cause for dukkha Dukkha can be stopped. The way to stop dukkha is by following the middle way (between asceticism and luxury).
The giving of The Four Noble Truths is often compared to a doctor determining there is an illness, finding the cause of the illness, determining whether the illness can be treated and prescribing the cure.
MAKING LINKS
The Four Noble Truths are connected with many other aspects of Buddhist teaching. You may wish to refer to the sections on nibbana, kamma, samsara, dependent origination and the three marks of existence in chapter 2 Core Concepts.
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ACTIVITY (AO1)
Work in small groups to create a series of four posters to illustrate The Four Noble Truths.
Summary
Many Buddhists would argue that we cannot ascribe more importance to one truth over the others, as they work in conjunction with each other. We need the impetus and understanding provided by the first and second truths, the hope provided by the third, but this must be followed by the action required in the fourth.
Which of the Four Noble Truths do you think is most important? Essentially the Four Noble Truths make us aware that tanha and avidya are the cause of dukkha and teach us to overcome them. This enables us to convert the cycle of dependent origination from a vicious cycle leading to rebirth in samsara into a virtuous cycle leading to nibbana. If we link back to our summary of dependent origination we can see the links between dependent origination and The Four Noble Truths.
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The Four Noble Truths 2. Tanha and avidya, the causes of dukkha, lead to:
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Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain the importance of the eightfold path.
The eightfold path is the Fourth Noble Truth. It is essentially the path to follow to overcome tanha and avidya. It comprises eight spokes which have both positive and negative connotations. The path is often divided into three aspects: wisdom, morality and concentration (often translated as meditation). Right Understanding (view) This is about seeing things as they really are. It is knowing the Four Noble Truths which allow us to see the world as it really is. This concept goes beyond knowledge as we normally consider it. It involves a deep understanding or penetration during which we see the true nature of things. We are only able to achieve this understanding when the mind has been freed from all impurities through meditation. This involves controlling the emotions, channelling thought away from hatred towards compassion, away from sensuality towards detachment. It might also be the committed intention of following the eightfold path. Avoiding lies, slander, gossip, malicious or abusive language or speech which will lead to hatred or disharmony. Speaking truthfully, using gentle and friendly words and only speaking when it is useful. The Buddha advocated a noble silence when nothing useful could be said. Right Action Some people see this aspect of the path as referring to the Five Precepts. Specifically it enjoins us not to steal, destroy life, cheat others, or engage in harmful sexual experiences. Act morally and in a peaceful manner. There is also an expectation that Buddhists should help others to lead an honourable life. Right Livelihood Do not make a living in a way which causes harm to others, e.g. the arms trade, the alcohol industry, cheating (which may today be considered to refer to the gambling industry, or even in some cases to the advertising industry), or killing animals. Choose a living which is honourable and does not harm others. Buddhists might encourage others to choose the caring professions. At the very least when working we should engage in our work in an honest and supportive manner (for example refusing to engaging in practices which are designed to cheat customers). Right Effort Right Mindfulness Is the will or determination to prevent and dispel unwholesome states of mind, and to produce and develop wholesome states of mind. This is the development of full awareness of the body, feelings, mind and thoughts. This awareness is essential if we are to control them. Although many regard Right Concentration as meditation practices, some meditation practices are designed to develop right mindfulness, for example breathing exercises develop an awareness of the body. Practices designed to avoid distraction, and develop the mind into a state where it can experience an insight into the truth. As concentration develops you pass through the four jhanas the Buddha experienced prior to his enlightenment. samadhi concentration sila moral conduct panna (prajna) wisdom
Right Concentration
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MAKING LINKS
Fact Box
The Five Precepts The Five Precepts are considered to be the minimum requirements to be followed by a lay Buddhist. They comprise: *Not to harm living beings. *Not to steal. *Not to engage in sexual misconduct. *Not to tell lies. *Not to take intoxicants which cloud the mind. Although often framed negatively, they also have positive connotations. For example not telling lies also implies speaking truthfully and helpfully.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Create an agony aunt page for a Buddhist magazine offering advice to Buddhists about following the eightfold path. You might want to include questions from the laity and the monastic community about which aspects of the eightfold path are most relevant to them, and why they might be finding it hard to follow particular aspects of the path. The Buddhist conception of this path is not as a series of steps to be followed one at a time. Indeed Buddhists would argue that they should be developed simultaneously as far as possible. Walpola Rahula, in his book What the Buddha Taught, makes this point: It should not be thought that the eight categories or divisions of the path should be followed and practised one after the other in the numerical order as given in the usual list But they are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far as possible They are all linked together and each helps the cultivation of the others. Indeed, he then begins his discussion of the eightfold path by considering the sila part of the path, since: This moral conduct is considered as the indispensable foundation for all higher spiritual attainments. No spiritual development is possible without this moral basis. In essence, Buddhists would argue that morality is required to have a clear conscience and the discipline needed in meditation, meditation is required to develop wisdom, wisdom is required to know the correct way to behave and so on. This is why the path is often depicted as a wheel.
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Do you think the laity should focus on different aspects of the eightfold path from the monastic community?
Peter Harvey explores the ordinary and transcendent levels of the eightfold path in chapter 3 of his book An Introduction to Buddhism. After reading this chapter, construct a diagram to show the two levels at which the path can be practised.
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In this section you will be able to explain the relationships between the fourfold sangha, and the issues facing some members of the sangha.
MAKING LINKS
You can find out more about the origins of the monastic sangha in chapter 1 the origins of Buddhism. There are strong relationships within the fourfold sangha, with both the laity and the monastic sangha having a role to play.
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Bhikkhus have always found it easier to attract support from the laity than bhikkhunis. In the Theravada tradition the line of bhikkhunis has died out and in Tibet it was never fully established. As interest in following the bhikkhunis lifestyle has increased there has been controversy about whether it can be re-established. Some have claimed that bhikkhus could ordain bhikkhunis, after all the bhikkhuni line was originally begun by the Buddha, a male. Others have argued that bhikkhunis from other Buddhist traditions could restart the ordination lines within the traditions where the lines have died out. The more traditional view is that because the ordination line has died out it is now lost forever. This does not stop women from leaving lay life behind, however. They will shave their heads, wear robes, and follow the ten precepts (and sometimes extra restrictions) of novice monks. These women are often referred to as lay sisters (upasikas), however their indeterminate status is a source of frustration to some of them.
You can find an interesting discussion of the issues surrounding the ordination of women in Buddhism on the website of Venerable Thubten Chodron (a bhikkhuni). Make a bullet-pointed list of the key issues, and suggested solutions while reading the article.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Write a newspaper article exploring the key issues facing bhikkhunis today.
You can find out more about the history of the forest bhikkhu tradition in Thailand on the Hermitary website, and biographies of selected forest-dwelling bhikkhus on the Access to Insight website. Using these sites for research, construct an argument supporting the integrity and authenticity of the forest-dwelling tradition in Buddhism.
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To provide an education: in connection with the responsibility of preserving the dhamma, the monastic sangha have had the joint responsibility of interpreting and disseminating the dhamma. They have a duty to determine which teachings are appropriate for the laity. Many viharas have also taken responsibility for more secular aspects of education. In some Asian countries the best way to gain an education is to enrol as a novice in the monastic sangha. To provide hope that nibbana can be achieved: in the Theravada tradition in particular it is believed that the best opportunity to achieve nibbana is within the monastic sangha. Thus, the existence of the monastic sangha and the implicit existence of bhikkhus who have achieved nibbana offer hope to the laity that the ultimate goal can be achieved in the future. Allowing the laity to make merit: by allowing the laity to make offerings to them, the monastic community give them the opportunity to make merit. This is achieved by the generosity developed by the laity. This generosity creates positive kammic formations. Traditionally, the bhikkhus do not thank the laity for their generosity, so that the kammic consequences for their actions can occur at other, hopefully more beneficial, times. To carry out Buddhist ceremonies: the monastic sangha do not usually take part in birth or wedding ceremonies. They will however be heavily involved in funeral practices, since the process of rebecoming is of such importance in Buddhist teachings. The monastic sangha may also carry out blessings, for example on newly built houses. In some Asian countries specific merit-making ceremonies will also be held.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Draw up a list of the duties and benefits of the laity and the monastic sangha. Highlight those which are tangible in one colour and those which are intangible in another colour.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Complete a Venn diagram with four circles, showing the differences and similarities between the four groups within the fourfold sangha.
Do you think it is realistic to expect members of the monastic sangha to follow all the vinaya rules today?
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Key teachings, attitudes and practices The arhat and bodhisattva paths Aim
In this section you will be able to explain the significance of the arhat and bodhisattva paths.
So far we have mainly considered beliefs, attitudes and practices in the Theravada tradition of Buddhism. Now we are going to consider one of the major areas of difference between the Theravada and Mahayana traditions the extent of the bodhisattva path. Bodhisattva may be derived from a phrase meaning one who is orientated towards enlightenment (Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism, OUP, 2003). Although the concept of the bodhisattva is found within both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, the way in which it is interpreted varies tremendously.
It would be useful to understand the origins of Mahayana Buddhism prior to studying this topic. You could complete a timeline of the development of Mahayana using: Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990. Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 1989. Rupert Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism, OPUS, 1998.
Arhatship
In the Theravada tradition most of those who are aiming for enlightenment follow the arhat path. In early Buddhist texts there is little distinction between the arhat and the Buddha, and the Buddha is referred to as an arhat in Pali chants. Essentially, the arhat achieves enlightenment by following the dhamma revealed by another, whilst the Buddha finds the path for himself. An arhat is one who has achieved nibbana, stopped kammic formations and will not be reborn when they dies. Arhatship is achieved by perfecting the aspects of the eightfold path.
MAKING LINKS
You can find out more about Mahayana and Theravada attitudes to the Buddha in the next topic in this chapter. In the Theravada tradition the nibbana achieved by the Buddha and the arhat is seen as identical.
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bodhisattva attains nirvana himself there could obviously be only one Bodhisattva. Alternatively we have the absurd spectacle of a series of Bodhisattvas each trying to hurry the others into nirvana in order to preserve his or her vow! Moreover if sentient beings are infinite then the Bodhisattva is setting himself an impossible task, and no Bodhisattva could ever attain Buddhahood those who had become Bodhisattvas would not become enlightened, while those who had not become Bodhisattvas would! [T]he Mahayana Bodhisattva does not postpone or turn back from nirvana. Rather he or she rejects the nirvanas of the Arhat and Pratyekabuddhas and aims for the full nirvana of the Buddha. (Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 1989) In essence, then, the Mahayana tradition rejects the nibbana of the arhat, as being either a skilful means (upaya) designed merely to set us upon the path, or as being of a lower stature. They believe that all should aim for the full nibbana of Buddhahood. Implicit within the Mahayana view of the bodhisattva is a criticism of the arhat. The Mahayana tradition often explicitly criticises the arhat as being selfish and prideful, seeking the goal for himself rather for the sake of others. The Theravada tradition rejects this, asserting that they are following the traditional path laid down by the Buddha. They also point to the generosity of the arhats towards the laity. It can also be questioned whether the arhat can be selfish, given the acceptance of the teaching of anatta.
Read the Parable of the Burning House in the Lotus Sutra. This will be required at A2. The Parable of the Burning House emphasises the relative status of arhats and bodhisattvas in Mahayana thought. Try to explain the purpose and symbolism of the Parable.
Fact Box
As with many Buddhist terms you will find a variety of different translations of Buddhist terms used in the Bodhisattva path. If you are using different texts, you may wish to note the different terms used to help avoid confusion. Stage 1 2 3 4 5 Characteristic Joyful feeling full of joy at the happiness generated by the moment of bodhicitta. Pure developing moral behaviour until it becomes spontaneously pure. Luminous through meditation, insight is developed. Brilliant all the 37 principles leading to enlightenment are followed. Hard to conquer progress along the path is sufficient that it would be hard to prevent further development. Facing forward full knowledge of reality is attained. This is deemed the equivalent of arhatship, however, the bodhisattva rejects this lesser nibbana to seek full Buddhahood. At this stage the bodhisattva is considered an enlightened bodhisattva. Perfection Generosity (dana) shown by giving wealth, teachings and even ones own life to aid others. Morality (sila) eradicating all immoral conduct, encouraging others to behave morally. Patience (ksanti) being patient in the face of anger and when experiencing adversity. Courage (virya) unselfish efforts are made to develop good qualities. Meditation (samadhi) Although meditative states are perfected, the heavenly rebirths they could lead to are rejected. Wisdom (prajna) an understanding of the inherent nature of reality, including anicca, anatta and sunyata (the concept that everything lacks inherent existence).
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Going far is beyond existence as we can imagine it, and can appear in other realms of existence to help others. Immoveable there is no possibility of falling back down the path. Good discrimination great knowledge allows the bodhisattva to use his skilful means to guide and teach others, encouraging them to follow the path. Cloud of the Dharma full perfection is achieved, the bodhisattva has a celestial body and Buddhahood occurs.
Skillful means (upaya-kausalya) is able to help other beings in the ways most appropriate for them. Vow (pranidhana) the Bodhisattvas vow can be renewed with new meaning, as he now has the ability to pursue it fully. Power (bala) the development of the powers of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and insight continues. Knowledge (jnana) full knowledge or omniscience is achieved.
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FURTHER RESEARCH
Create short biographies of two or three bodhisattvas to use as examples when you discuss the importance of the bodhisattva path. You can find information on bodhisattvas in: Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 1989. The Buddha-net website
How important is the distinction between the interpretations of the bodhisattva path in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism?
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Aim
In this topic you will be able to explain the differing attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.
MAKING LINKS
Does the Theravada or Mahayana understanding of the Buddha make most sense?
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Sambhogakaya
Dharmakaya
Fact Box
Tathagatagarbha The tathagatagarbha is the Buddha nature or Buddha embryo within all beings. This concept is understood in two ways. Some conceive of an embryo of Buddha-ness, which requires development in order for nibbana to be achieved. Alternatively, it is conceived of as an already-existing Buddha nature, which merely has to be recognised, once external defilements which cloud the mind are removed, for nibbana to be realised. The three aspects of the Buddha have sometime been seen as aspects of body, speech and mind. The nirmanakaya and sambhogakaya are dependent upon the dharmakaya. They might be seen as the personalised aspects of the depersonalised ultimate.
ACTIVITY (AO1)
Draw three outlines of the Buddha and inside each explain the three bodies of the Buddha.
Do you think the Buddhas in Mahayana Buddhism are synonymous with the God of monotheistic faith?
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1
Get the result
Exam Question
Buddhism
In the course of your AS exam you will have to answer two questions. Each question is made up of two parts: part a) (AO1) is designed to test your knowledge and understanding of an area; part b) (AO2) tests your arguing skill.
2(a) Explain the different attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. (25 marks)
Sallys answer
In this answer I am going to tell you about how Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists feel about the Buddha. The Theravada school is the original school of Buddhism, and developed first. It sticks the most closely to the Buddhas teachings. The Mahayana school developed later. It is made up of lots of groups of Buddhists, and there is lots of variety in it. Theravada Buddhists feel that the Buddha was born, lived and died in this world. He is a normal man who has followed the bodhisattva path, and eventually achieved nibbana. Mahayana Buddhists see the Buddha more as a god. He was not born and did not die, but lives forever. He appeared to save us, and we can pray to him to get help. The Mahayana view is not what the Buddha himself taught, so does not make sense. I have explained the Theravada and Mahayana views the Theravada seeing him as a man like us and the Mahayana seeing him as a God and the Theravada views make most sense.
Examiner comment
Sallys answer is quite repetitive, wasting time she could have spent giving more content and detail. The first sentence is unnecessary basically Sally is saying I am going to answer the question you have asked. At the end she has also repeated herself I have answered the question, this was my answer again unnecessary and wasting valuable exam time. Sally has also included details which are focused on the general topic, rather than answering the question, in the first paragraph. The examiner will know the background to the Theravada and Mahayana schools, and this is not addressing the question, so again this has wasted time and effort which would be more usefully spent addressing the question. In paragraph two Sally has given a brief summary of the Theravada attitude to the Buddha. This is accurate, but lacks supporting detail. She could have developed this by explaining each point, and drawing out the significance of this attitude for Theravada Buddhist thought. In paragraph three it is clear that Sally has oversimplified the Mahayana position. Sally needs to explore the purpose of worship in more detail. She also needs to show awareness that the Buddha is not considered to be a God within Buddhism. Crucially Sally has not explained the trikaya doctrine. This is of key importance when explaining the Mahayana attitudes to the Buddha. Sally has tried to offer some evaluation in her answer this is not what the Buddha taught, so does not make sense. This is unnecessary in part (a).
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Exam Caf
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Exam Question
Fariahs answer
Theravadins believe there is only one Buddha at a time. The next Buddha (Maitreya) will appear when all knowledge of this Buddha has died out. Theravadins view the Buddha as a man who has followed the bodhisattva path to attain nibbana. Although a man, he is an extraordinary man. The discipline needed to follow the path, and the spiritual insights gained make the Buddha extra special. Theravadins believe that since he was a man we too can follow the path he has set to attain nibbana. Since the Buddhas parinibbana we can only access his wisdom through his teachings. Mahayana Buddhists believe there can be lots of Buddhas at a time. Since everyone follows the bodhisattva path potentially all sentient beings can become Buddhas. The historical Buddha Shakyamuni was an appearance of the transformation body of the Buddha. When the Buddha appeared to die he did not really. This was just a way to encourage his followers to practise harder and gain nibbana for themselves, instead of relying on him too much. Since the Buddha still exists in his dharma body or enjoyment body we can still ask him for help. This means Mahayana Buddhists might pray to him for help.
Buddhism
2(a) Explain the different attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. (25 marks)
Examiner comment
Fariah has essentially made the same points about Theravada Buddhism as Sally. She has, however, explained them in detail. This extra detail allows us to see that she has understood the import of the Theravadin position for Theravada practice. In paragraph two we can see that Fariah knows about the trikaya doctrine. She also understands why Mahayana Buddhists might pray, to gain the Buddhas help, without making the mistake of assuming the Buddha is a God. Fariah could, however, outline the three bodies of the Buddha, and their implications, more explicitly.
Exam Caf
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1
Exam Question
Ollies answer
The Buddha is a man in Theravada Buddhism. This is different to Mahayana Buddhism where he is more than a man. In Mahayana Buddhism Buddhas exist in three bodies, the dharmakaya, sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya. The nirmanakaya may appear to be a man, as it is the human form which appears to teach on earth. Thus we may think it is just a man. However the Buddha exists as one with the teachings in the dharmakaya, and thus has some form of celestial existence. Indeed in the sambhogakaya form the Buddha can still teach bodhisattvas, and is perhaps accessible to all through meditation. It is difficult to see how the dharmakaya and sambhogakaya could be considered anything other than some form of celestial existence.
Buddhism
2(b) To what extent is the Buddha seen as simply a man in Theravada Buddhism? (10 marks)
Examiner comment
This answer would attract very few marks. Ollie clearly knows and understands the Mahayana view very well. He has made a brief attempt to relate this to the question with his first line; however, the question asks him to consider the Theravadin position, which he has not done. If the question had been To what extent is the Buddha seen as simply a man in Mahahyana Buddhism? then Ollie would have gained much higher marks. Its really important to answer the question asked, not the one you would prefer to answer, to gain higher levels.
Hot Tips
At AS the exam is in two parts. Part (a) is worth more than twice as many marks as part (b), so you should allocate about twice as much time to part (a). In part (a) you are expected to show your knowledge and understanding. In part (b) you are expected to show your ability to evaluate key issues. Answering part (a) Show the examiner what you know and understand about this topic. Answer the question asked. Avoid repetition. Make points clearly in separate paragraphs. Link points in a logical order. Use appropriate technical terms.
Answering part (b) Show the examiner your ability to evaluate issues related to this topic. Make a clear argument. Use evidence to support your views. Discuss (rather than state) different views. Analyse the coherency of the views you have discussed.
You can find information relating to the Buddha on pages 413, 23 and 4243. For this question pages 4445 will be most relevant.
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Ross: When doing practice essays I realised that I sometimes missed trigger words in questions. For example in the (b) section of one question it said To what extent is the Buddha seen as simply a man in Theravada Buddhism?, and I missed the word simply. As a result I argued that the Buddha was a human who had followed the bodhisattva path. I forgot to discuss whether he was an exceptional or special kind of human being, though. Now I underline key words in the questions to make sure I dont miss important aspects of the question.
Buddhism
Amy: I tried to predict the questions on my paper, and revise only the topics I thought would come up. A question on the Buddha had come up the year before so I thought it wouldnt come up this year, and didnt revise that topic. Then this year there were two questions on the Buddha. I was really stuck as I couldnt answer either question properly, so I had to do the other two questions. Looking back at more papers Ive realised that the questions are completely unpredictable, so Im going to revise all the topics for my resits.
Exam Question
4(a) Explain how following the vinaya rules might lead to nibbana. (25 marks)
Sunils answer
In order to achieve nibbana you have to see the world as it really is. In practice this means understanding the three marks of existence and the four Noble Truths. Not only this but you must take action based on this knowledge. For example if you understand that there is no-self then you must act unselfishly. The vinaya rules help the monks to achieve nibbana by forcing them to act in the way needed to achieve nibbana. For example the rule about not having possessions helps them to avoid selfish behaviour. By following the rules it will be easier to achieve nibbana as you are acting in the right way.
Examiner comment
Sunil has tried to address the specific question, which is positive. He has given a specific example of the rules about possessions helping prevent selfish behaviour to try and support his explanation. Sunils answer would sound more professional if he used key terms, instead of their translations for example anatta rather than no-self, bhikkhu instead of monk. Sunils answer is short, and as a result the points he has made lack development. Sunil could take each point he has made and explain it more thoroughly. He could provide more examples and show how these ideas are related to other connected concepts such as kamma and dependent origination.
Exam Caf
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1
Exam Question
Adisas answer
In the Theravada tradition there are 227 vinaya rules. The main purpose of the rules is to enable Buddhists to follow the middle-way advocated by the Buddha. The middle-way is encapsulated by the eightfold path. In the eightfold path we are required to develop wisdom, morality and concentration. The vinaya rules also encourage this. By following the vinaya rules bhikkhus have time to study and meditate to improve wisdom and concentration. The rules also encourage moral behaviour. Wisdom enables us to penetrate the reality of the world, and to, for example, understand the concept of dependent origination. Once we understand dependent origination we are more likely to be able to break the links in the cycle to attain nibbana. Following the vinaya rules will also embed moral conduct within our psyche so that it becomes automatic. This will either help us achieve a positive rebirth, and be one step closer to nibbana in our next lives, or develop the thoughts we need to break free of samsara in this life.
Buddhism
4(a) Explain how following the vinaya rules might lead to nibbana. (25 marks)
Examiner comment
Adisa makes more explicit reference to the ways in which following the vinaya rules will help Buddhists achieve nibbana. He also shows better understanding of the purpose of the vinaya rules. Adisa makes good references to other related concepts, like dependent origination, and this demonstrates good understanding. Adisas answer gives the impression that he does not know what the vinaya rules are as he skirts over this area. To improve this answer Adisa could use some specific vinaya rules and show how they help develop moral conduct, wisdom or concentration. For example he could refer to the rules regarding alms collection, and explain how these discourage selfishness.
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Exam Caf
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Exam Question
Qiaos answer
The practicality or otherwise of the vinaya rules depends upon the context in which they are practiced. Some rules which were relatively easy to follow at the time of the Buddha are not so easy now, as the context in which Buddhism is practised has changed. At the time of the Buddha there was a tradition of the laity supporting the monastic sangha with alms. Rules such as those forbidding the handling of money, and reliance upon alms for food, were therefore entirely reasonable. However, this changed as Buddhism and the societies in which it practised changed. Tibetan monasteries became very large, for example, and were too large to enable the laity to support them with an alms round. In Tibetan monasteries therefore this tradition has largely been abandoned, and the monasteries participate in farming in order to support themselves. The difficulties in following the vinaya rules may be most apparent in the West, where there is no historical relationship between the laity and the monastic community. For example if the bhikkhus went on an alms round in Leamington Spa then the people living there would not be ready to provide them with food as there is no history of this. As the world has become more global other difficulties have also arisen. In the past most bhikkhus would have travelled little from their monasteries. Being forbidden from handling money would not necessarily have been a problem because they would have attracted support from the laity in the areas in which they travelled. Today bhikkhus may be sent to study, teach or attend conferences in other countries, having to travel by air, and possibly stay in hotels. To do this without handling money would be extremely problematic. Although many bookings might be made using electronic currency it is difficult to see how bhikkhus could arrange food during their travels without either a lay companion to handle the money, or handling money themselves. It is difficult to know whether in these circumstances bhikkhus would abandon the rule, as not being appropriate to the middle-way today, or whether they would see the overcoming of the difficulties raised by the rule as factors in their development towards nibbana.
Buddhism
4(b) The vinaya rules are impractical in modern society. Discuss. (10 marks)
Examiner comment
Qiaos answer has a clear thread. She links one point to the next well. She is aware of some of the ways the vinaya has been adapted already, and is aware that the issue to be raised when considering further adaptation is the extent to which the middle-way is retained. Qiao uses two clear examples to illustrate the points she is making. In her conclusion Qiao could offer some critical analysis of which approach she feels would be most in keeping with Buddhism.
Exam Caf
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1
Hot Tips
You can learn more about these topics on pages 14 and 3538. nibbana vinaya rules how the vinaya rules lead to nibbana.
Buddhism
In part (a) of this question you need to bring together two areas of your learning nibbana and the vinaya rules. Sometimes students try to explain both areas individually, before bringing them together at the end as below:
Although you need to ensure you cover both areas you do not really have time to do this separately in the exam. Instead you should aim to make a link between both areas with each point you make.
Jonathan: Lots of areas in Buddhism overlap, and I realised that quite often questions cover more than one area. When I was revising I used different colour codes to show where there were links between topics, for example I put blue dots on everything that could be related to nibbana (for example kamma, samsara, dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths, the three marks of existence).
Amy: I find it really hard to remember all the rules. I decided to try and memorise 10 rules, just to use as examples if I needed too.
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1.1
Origins of Buddhism
Student Book page 6
Rebecoming the momentary connection between each moment of consciousness connects one life to another.
Atman
Anatta
Nibbana
Moksha
Gods
Samsara
Samsara
Karma
Kamma
The sangha
Dharma (Varnashramadharma)
Ahimsa
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Teacher resources
1.2
Origins of Buddhism
Student Book pages 1013
Questions
1. What sources do we have about the life of the Buddha?
9. What did the Buddha learn in each of the three watches when he gained enlightenment?
12. What was important about the way the Buddha died?
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1.3
Origins of Buddhism
Student Book pages 1013
Myth or history?
Enlightenment
Renunciation
Teaching
Death
Event
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Teacher resources
1.4
Origins of Buddhism
Student Book pages 1415 Sheet 1 of 2
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1.4
Origins of Buddhism
Student Book pages 1415 Sheet 2 of 2
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Teacher resources
2.1
Spread of Buddhism
Student Book pages 1618
4. What type of moral behaviour do the rock and pillar edicts recommend?
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3.1
Core concepts
Student Book pages 1920
The concept of kamma is often misunderstood in the West. Look at the images below and decide which one best demonstrates the Buddhist concept of kamma. Explain why this image is the best way to demonstrate the Buddhist concept of kamma. Explain why the other two images are not good ways to demonstrate the Buddhist concept of kamma.
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3.3
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2122
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Teacher resources
3.4
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2122 Sheet 1 of 2
The hub
The hub represents the idea that the three poisons keep the cycle of samsara in motion. It contains a boar to represent ignorance, a snake to represent envy and a cockerel to represent greed. They are shown eating each others tails to represent the idea that they feed off each other.
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3.4
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2122 Sheet 2 of 2
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Teacher resources
3.5
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2324
Has Peter taken refuge in the Buddha? Three refuges mystery exercise
Use the information on the cards you are given to explain whether Peter has taken refuge in the Buddha and how you can tell.
Peter has been taking meditation classes at the local Buddhist centre for several months.
Peter has bought a statue of the Buddha to use in his meditation practices at home.
Peter has set up an area at home where he can meditate in peace and quiet.
Peter has bought a copy of the Jataka Tales, and is reading the stories in it to his children.
Peter has asked a monk at the vihara for advice on the best meditation practice to use.
The image of the Buddha Peter has chosen is one of him meditating.
Peter has been meditating on episodes in the Buddhas life where he showed compassion.
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Teacher resources
3.7
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2627 Sheet 1 of 4
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3.7
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2627 Sheet 2 of 4
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Teacher resources
3.7
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2627 Sheet 3 of 4
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3.7
Core concepts
Student Book pages 2627 Sheet 4 of 4
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4.1
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Teacher resources
4.1
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4.2
Wisdom
Right Understanding (view) This is about seeing things as they really are, by understanding the Four Noble Truths which allow us to see the world as it really is. This concept goes beyond knowledge as we normally consider it. It involves a deep understanding or penetration during which we see the true nature of things. We are only able to achieve this understanding when the mind has been freed from all impurities through meditation. Right Thought (attitude, intention) This involves controlling the emotions, channelling thought away from hatred towards compassion, from sensuality towards detachment. It might also be the committed intention of following the eightfold path.
Morality
Right Speech Avoiding lies, slander, gossip, malicious or abusive language or speech which will lead to hatred or disharmony. Speaking truthfully, using gentle and friendly words and speaking only when it is useful. The Buddha advocated a noble silence when nothing useful could be said. Right Action Right Action specifically enjoins us not to steal, destroy life, cheat others or engage in harmful sexual experiences. We should act morally and in a peaceful manner. There is also an expectation that Buddhists should help others to lead an honourable life. Right Livelihood Do not make a living in a way which causes harm to others, e.g. the arms trade, the alcohol industry, cheating (which may today be considered to refer to the gambling industry, or even in some cases to the advertising industry), or killing animals. Buddhists might encourage others to choose the caring professions.
Concentration
Right Effort This is the will or determination to prevent and dispel unwholesome states of mind and to produce and develop wholesome states of mind. Right Mindfulness This is the development of full awareness of the body, feelings, mind and thoughts. This awareness is essential if we are to control them. Although many regard Right Concentration as meditation practices, some meditation practices are designed to develop Right Mindfulness; for example, breathing exercises develop an awareness of the body. Right Concentration Practices designed to avoid distraction and develop the mind into a state where it can experience an insight into the truth. As concentration develops, you pass through the four jhanas the Buddha experienced prior to his enlightenment.
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4.3
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4.4
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Teacher resources
4.5
Amy
Amy has been working in the local burger bar for 18 months. Any cooked food which is unsold for longer than one hour is supposed to be thrown away to ensure customers safety. This costs the company money. Amy has noticed that the managers have started keeping cooked food for longer than an hour, to improve profits.
Ollie
A large supermarket has recently built a new shop on the edge of a small town and is advertising for staff. This development will put lots of the local shops in town out of business. Ollie is a sixth form student looking for work. His Mum works in one of the local shops.
Ross
Ross has not been doing his homework. He has now got an after-school detention. When he goes home he tells his Mum that he doesnt understand why he has got a detention, as he has always done what he is told. His Mum believes him, and is planning to phone up the school and complain that they are picking on Ross for no reason.
Aydin
While checking his pay, Aydin discovered he has been overpaid for several months.
Sian
Sian has been preparing for a gap year, when she discovers that her Dad is seriously ill. She is grief-stricken and unsure what to do next.
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Teacher resources
4.7
Vinaya rules
Sort these vinaya rules into the following categories: 1. Those requiring expulsion from the monastic sangha. 2. Those requiring suspension or probation. 3. Those which are judged according to the circumstances. 4. Those requiring expiation (penance/reparation) and/or confession.
Murder.
Destroying plants.
Drinking alcohol.
Killing an animal.
Stealing.
Slandering a monk.
Telling a lie.
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4.8
The duties and benefits for the laity and the sangha
Sort these statements into tangible and intangible benefits for the monastic sangha and the laity.
ceremonies
education
merit
time to meditate
providing food
providing services
providing robes
providing shelter
providing medicines
managing money
teaching
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Teacher resources
4.9
Example of rules
Lay women
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Bhikkhunis
Bhikkhus
Lay men
Group
4.10
Read the statements below and put them into appropriate categories.
We should not rely on others to help us, as the Buddha told us to seek the path for ourselves.
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4.11
On the three diagrams below record the characteristics of each of the bodies of the Buddha.
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4.12
What do these different images tell us about attitudes to the Buddha? How might these images be used?
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Teacher resources
4.13
4) What is bodhicitta?
10) Have the bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism taken on the same role as gods in other religions?
12) How does the bodhisattva path differ in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism?
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A.1
General ideas
Odd one out
Enlightenment
Awakening
Nibbana
Nirvana
Nibbana
Satori
Blowing out
Nibbana
Parinibbana
Nirodha
Extinguishing
The Buddha
Tathagata
Siddhartha Gautama
Shakyamuni Buddha
Buddha
Dhamma
Sangha
Dukkha
Dependent origination
Samsara
Nibbana
Dukkha
Kamma
Karma
Rebirth
Samsara
Conditioned genesis
Dependent origination
Cycle of samsara
Wheel of rebirth
Laity
Monastic sangha
Fourfold sangha
Twofold sangha
Bhikkhu
Bhikkhuni
Arhat
Buddha
Dukkha
Anicca
Anatta
Dhamma
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B.1
Exam Caf
Mark Antheas essay
Using the mark schemes, mark Antheas essay. You might find it helpful to underline all the good points in Antheas essay in one colour, and all the negative points in another colour.
1(a) Explain the relationship between the three poisons and samsara. [25 marks] The wheel of samsara is the idea that we are born, die and are reborn. It is the three poisons (greed, hatred and delusion) which keep the wheel of samsara in motion. This is why they are shown at the centre of the wheel of life.
In Buddhism there is no soul or self, so the process of rebirth is quite complicated. It is four of the five khandhas which are passed on at rebirth. These include the habits we have built up throughout our lives, and our kammic formations. We generate kamma by our behaviour, because we are greedy and selfish, we hate others, or make mistakes because we do not know any better.
This is shown in the wheel of dependent origination. It is tanha (greed or craving) which causes us to grasp at things. This grasping leads to attachment and then to rebirth. If we can stop greed we can break this cycle, and attain nibbana.
1(b) There is no difference between greed and hatred. Discuss. [10 marks] Greed and hatred are different at one level, but at another level they are the same. Greed is when we crave something, and want to have something. This in Buddhist thought is dangerous because it leads to attachment. Hatred is different. We hate things we dont like, and this is the opposite of greed. The results are similar though because we crave to be away from something, which also leads to attachment. We can see this sometimes in the phrase we always hate the ones we love. We only hate them because we are attached to them. So greed and hatred are two forms of the same thing. So yes there is no difference between them.
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B.2
Exam Caf
The mark scheme: indicative content
There are two parts to the mark schemes used by OCR. The generic mark scheme this is the most important part. Your work will be assessed and assigned to levels according to the criteria outlined on this mark scheme. The indicative content mark scheme this is a guide for examiners. It shows them the type of content most students are likely to include in their answers. Dont worry if you include different material, as your work will always be assessed against how well it answers the question.
Indicative content
1(a) Explain the relationship between the three poisons and samsara. Candidates are likely to explain the nature and relationship of the three poisons, greed, hatred and delusion. Candidates might consider the cycle of samsara, explaining the nature of rebirth in Buddhism. Candidates are likely to refer to the depiction of samsara in the Tibetan Wheel of Life, where the three poisons are depicted as the hub of the wheel. They may use this to demonstrate the role of the three poisons in keeping beings within samsara. Some candidates might refer to dependent origination to demonstrate the operation of the 3 poisons within the cycle of samsara. Better responses will need to address both aspects of the question fully. [25]
1(b) There is no difference between greed and hatred. Discuss. Answers will build on the material in part (a), perhaps exploring the reasons why they are both included within the three poisons. Candidates are likely to use examples from their own experience to argue that greed and hatred are patently different. Good responses are likely to explore the Buddhist understanding that hatred is an inversion of greed, desiring the absence rather than presence of something. Good responses should be able to explore similarities and differences between the two before reaching a conclusion. [10]
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B.3
Exam Caf
Sheet 1 of 2
Band 0 1 0
Mark/25
AO1 absent/no relevant material almost completely ignores the question little relevant material some concepts inaccurate shows little knowledge of technical terms Communication: often unclear or disorganised
AO2
1-5
6-10
focuses on the general topic rather than directly on the question knowledge limited and partially accurate limited understanding selection often inappropriate limited use of technical terms Communication: some clarity and organisation
3-4
an attempt to sustain an argument and justify a viewpoint some analysis, but not successful views asserted but not successfully justified
11-15
satisfactory attempt to address the question some accurate knowledge appropriate understanding some successful selection of material some accurate use of technical terms Communication: some clarity and organisation
5-6
the argument is sustained and justified some successful analysis which may be implicit
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B.3
Exam Caf
Sheet 2 of 2
16-20
a good attempt to address the question accurate knowledge good understanding good selection of material technical terms mostly accurate Communication: generally clear and organised
a good attempt at using evidence to sustain an argument some successful and clear analysis might put more than one point of view
21-25
an excellent attempt to address the question showing understanding and engagement with the material very high level of ability to select and deploy relevant information accurate use of technical terms Communication: answer is well constructed and organised
an excellent attempt which uses a range of evidence to sustain an argument comprehends the demands of the question shows understanding and critical analysis of different viewpoints
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Teacher resources
B.4
Exam Caf
Antheas essay
This is a good introduction. It makes a clear link between the three poisons and samsara right at the start of the essay. Here again Anthea has tried to link the two areas in the question. This is less successful, however, as it lacks detail. This is a good point , and if explored in more detail could lead to high marks
1(a) Explain the relationship between the three poisons and samsara. [25 marks]
The wheel of samsara is the idea that we are born, die and are reborn. It is the three poisons (greed, hatred and delusion) which keep the wheel of samsara in motion. This is why they are shown at the centre of the wheel of life. In Buddhism there is no soul or self, so the process of rebirth is quite complicated. It is four of the five khandhas which are passed on at rebirth. These include the habits we have built up throughout our lives, and our kammic formations. We generate kamma by our behaviour, because we are greedy and selfish, we hate others, or make mistakes because we do not know any better. This is shown in the wheel of dependent origination. It is tanha (greed or craving) which causes us to grasp at things. This grasping leads to attachment and then to rebirth. If we can stop greed we can break this cycle, and attain nibbana.
Overall Anthea has done nothing wrong. She understands the question and has tried to address it explicitly. The points she has made lack depth and detail, though. Anthea needs to take each point and explain it with examples and reference to Buddhist teachings. Anthea has shown accurate knowledge, but the lack of detail means she has not shown good understanding.
This is a fair point, which could be supported with an example Again this is a valid point, which could be supported with an example This is a clear attempt to address the issues raised in the question. Whilst it is fine to use everyday experiences to help us explain answers Anthea does so at the expense of including Buddhist views.
1(b) There is no difference between greed and hatred. Discuss. [10 marks]
Greed and hatred are different at one level, but at another level they are the same. Greed is when we crave something, and want to have something. This in Buddhist thought is dangerous because it leads to attachment. Hatred is different. We hate things we dont like, and this is the opposite of greed. The results are similar though because we crave to be away from something, which also leads to attachment. We can see this sometimes in the phrase we always hate the ones we love. We only hate them because we are attached to them. So greed and hatred are two forms of the same thing. So yes there is no difference between them.
Anthea has given some evidence to support her argument that greed and hatred have the same effect. Although she states that greed and hatred can also be seen as different, she has not really offered any evidence to support this claim. Anthea could also have made more use of Buddhist teachings in her evaluation. Antheas answer has some successful analysis, but it is not always clear.
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B.5
Exam Caf
Asoka essay writing frame
Use the framework below to help you plan and structure your essay on Asoka.
3(a) Explain why Asoka was important for the spread of Buddhism. [25 marks]
A brief outline of the context of Asokas life do not spend too long on this. The importance of pillars and rock edicts in spreading Buddhism within India. Support for missionary activity, and the success of this in spreading Buddhism outside India. How Asokas support led to increased uptake of Buddhism amongst members of the government, and how this might have contributed to the spread of Buddhism within and outside of India.
3(b) Asoka was more important to the survival of Buddhism than the sangha. Discuss. [10 marks]
The importance of Asokas patronage on the survival of Buddhism. Reformation of the monastic sangha, missionary activity, patronage of the monastic sangha, implementation of reforms to governmental practices. The importance of the sangha to the survival of Buddhism. Preservation of the dhamma, spread of the teachings. Evaluation of whether the sangha or Asoka was most important in ensuring the survival of Buddhism.
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G576 QP
Morning/Afternoon Time: 1 hour 30 minutes
INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question or part of question. The total number of marks for this paper is 70.
ADVICE TO CANDIDATES Read each question carefully and make sure you know what you have to do before starting your answer.
[Turn Over
2 Answer two questions. 1 (a) Explain the relationship between the three poisons and samsara. (b) There is no difference between greed and hatred. Discuss. 2 (a) Explain the different attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. (b) To what extent is the Buddha seen as simply a man in Theravada Buddhism? 3 (a) Explain why Asoka was important for the spread of Buddhism. (b) Asoka was more important to the survival of Buddhism than the sangha. Discuss. 4 (a) Explain how following the vinaya rules might lead to nibbana. (b) The vinaya rules are impractical in modern society. Discuss. [25] [10] [25] [10] [25] [10] [25] [10] Paper Total [70]
2 Band 0 1 Mark /25 0 1-5 AO1 absent/no relevant material almost completely ignores the question little relevant material some concepts inaccurate shows little knowledge of technical terms Communication: often unclear or disorganised focuses on the general topic rather than directly on the question knowledge limited and partially accurate limited understanding selection often inappropriate limited use of technical terms Communication: some clarity and organisation satisfactory attempt to address the question some accurate knowledge appropriate understanding some successful selection of material some accurate use of technical terms Communication: some clarity and organisation a good attempt to address the question accurate knowledge good understanding good selection of material technical terms mostly accurate Communication: generally clear and organised an excellent attempt to address the question showing understanding and engagement with the material very high level of ability to select and deploy relevant information accurate use of technical terms Communication: answer is well constructed and organised Mark /10 0 1-2 AO2 absent/no argument very little argument or justification of viewpoint little or no successful analysis Communication: often unclear or disorganised
6-10
3-4
an attempt to sustain an argument and justify a viewpoint some analysis, but not successful views asserted but not successfully justified Communication: some clarity and organisation
11-15
5-6
the argument is sustained and justified some successful analysis which may be implicit Communication: some clarity and organisation
16-20
7-8
21-25
9-10
a good attempt at using evidence to sustain an argument some successful and clear analysis might put more than one point of view Communication: generally clear and organised an excellent attempt which uses a range of evidence to sustain an argument comprehends the demands of the question shows understanding and critical analysis of different viewpoints Communication: answer is well constructed and organised
Answer
Explain the relationship between the three poisons and samsara. Candidates are likely to explain the nature and relationship of the three poisons, greed, hatred and delusion. Candidates might explain the cycle of samsara, explaining the nature of rebirth in Buddhism. Candidates are likely to explain the depiction of samsara in the Tibetan Wheel of Life, where the three poisons are depicted as the hub of the wheel. They may use this to demonstrate the role of the three poisons in keeping beings within samsara. Some candidates might refer to dependent origination to demonstrate the operation of the 3 poisons within the cycle of samsara. Better responses will need to address both aspects of the question fully. [25]
1(b)
There is no difference between greed and hatred. Discuss. Answers will build on the material in part (a), perhaps exploring the reasons why they are both included within the three poisons. Candidates are likely to use examples from their own experience to argue that greed and hatred are patently different. Good responses are likely to explore the Buddhist understanding that hatred is an inversion of greed, desiring the absence rather then presence of something. Good responses should be able to assess similarities and differences between the two before reaching a conclusion.
[10]
2(a)
Explain the different attitudes to the Buddha in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Candidates are likely to explain the Theravada view that the Buddha was simply a man, who having followed the Bodhisattva path reached its conclusion and could see the world as it really was. Good responses are also likely to explain the idea that in Theravada Buddhism only one Buddha appears at a time. Candidates might also consider the trikaya doctrine in Mahayana Buddhism, especially the more celestial views of the Buddha expressed in Mahayana Buddhism. Good responses may explain the concept of tathagatagarbha, and the multiplicity of Buddhas in the Mahayana tradition.
[25]
Answer
Max Mark
To what extent is the Buddha seen as simply a man in Theravada Buddhism? Candidates might argue that the Buddha is seen as a man in Theravada Buddhism, though one who has followed a long path towards Buddhahood. Some candidates might argue that the Buddha was a man, but the achievement of Buddhahood elevated him beyond this. Good responses are likely to focus on the appropriateness of the word simply in this context. They might explore the extraordinary nature required to follow the path to Buddhahood.
[10]
3(a)
Explain why Asoka was important for the spread of Buddhism. Candidates are likely to explain key aspects of the life of Asoka, however better responses will need to move beyond description and address the question, specifically focusing on why Asoka was important for the spread of Buddhism. Candidates might explain Asokas support for missionary activity for example to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) and the erection of pillars. Further explanation is likely to focus on the reformation of the sangha and governmental support. Good responses are likely to explain the success and importance of these factors in spreading Buddhist belief and practice.
[25]
3(b)
Asoka was more important to the survival of Buddhism than the sangha. Discuss. Candidates are likely to explore the effect of Asokas patronage and reforms on the early survival of Buddhism. Candidates might also assess the importance of the sangha in preserving the teachings of the Buddha. Good responses might consider the state of the sangha at the time of Asoka, and the damage this might have caused to Buddhism if left unreformed, before reaching a conclusion.
[10]
Answer
Max Mark
Explain how following the vinaya rules might lead to nibbana. Candidates are likely to explain the purpose of the vinaya rules in helping bhikkhus follow the middle path, and developing the attitudes necessary for the achievement of nibbana. Candidates might also explain the nature of nibbana, and the qualities that need to be developed in order to realise nibbana. Candidates would benefit from explaining some specific vinaya rules to illustrate their response. Candidates are likely to explain the link between the vinaya rules, kamma, the Four Noble Truths, and nibbana.
[25]
4(b)
The vinaya rules are impractical in modern society. Discuss. Candidates might argue that some rules, such as the injunction on the handling of money, are impractical in modern society. Candidates may argue that although difficult to follow such rules still have value, for example in the development of positive attitudes or the following of the middle path. Good responses might explore whether such rules were always impractical, or are only so now due to modern developments. Paper Total
[10] [70]
Note: You need to be able to answer [a] questions on the meaning of each of these, individually and all three together. Easy enough on anatta & dukkha, I hear you say, but wot about earning 25 marks on anicca??? Well, actually, I think its v. unlikely that well get one on just anicca! More likely will be a general all-three question with a [b] on whether anicca is the most important. So Here are some possible questions for you to think through.
1 [a] State & explain Buddhist teaching on dukkha. [25] [b] Buddhism is pessimistic To what extent do you agree? [10]
2 [a] State & explain Buddhist teaching on anatta. [25] [b] To what extent do you consider this teaching to be either accurate or helpful? [10] 3 [a] State & explain the Three Marks of Existence. [25] [b] Anicca is the most important of these - to what extent do you agree? [10] OR Dukkha is the most important of these OR Anatta is the most important of these OR To what extent do you consider the 3 Marks of Existence to be of equal importance?
1 [a] Describe & explain Buddhist teaching on Dukkha. [25] Intro. on obvious centrality of dukkha in Buddhist teaching, espec. as one of the 3 Marks of Existence (thus characterising all samsaric life in general) and in 4 Nobs, & thus on how important it is to know what the word dukkha actually translates variant translations of dukkha espec. as unsatisfactoriness the 3 categories of dukkha (mental/physical, through anicca, ennui/angst) try to throw a quote in here & then say: dukkhas a fact, face up to it! the causes of dukkha craving & ignorance (+ underlying illusion of self) Give this some depth & welly Concl: Buddhist dhamma helps us identify & face this with a view to overcoming it (ie. Lead in to part [b]) [b] Buddhism is Pessimistic. [i] Yes it is pessimistic, because. of the sweeping, all-inclusive nature of the claim that all of life is characterised by dukkha Hey, even the good times suck! (or pass) it leads to not expecting anything good out of life or people, & this could be profoundly demoralising & lead to precisely the sort of existential angst & ennui that the Buddhists claim to want to overcome we might even feel suspicious in some presentations of Budd. That they want to prove life is hopeless so that you have no-where else to turn but to the Buddhist group. (Well, hello & mmm & welcome to our group!) [ii] BUT no, its not pessimistic, because. Western & academic (exam-shaped) presentations of Budd. Tend to overemphasise dukkha & the 4 Nobs. In Budd cultures, & the Budd himself, youd start with karma, the importance of generosity, the cultivation of positive states of mind Starting with the 4 Nobs distorts the teachings (things look grim if you stop at the 2nd Nob!) and can lead us to forget that the main focus is v. positively geared to the overcoming of suffering and a tried & tested path to real & lasting joy. The goal of Buddhism is the unconditioned bliss of nibbana, and this is held out as an actuality for the Buddha & hundreds of his followers and a real possibility for all. Even so, Budd teaching on dukkha is not so much pessimistic as realistic, in the way it faces up to reality in the present moment, rather than opting for some illusory make-believe, or pie-in-the-sky (when-you-die) Concl: Need to see this teaching in context with all the other teachings & practices.??
3 [a] State & explain the Three Marks of Existence. [25] Intro. State & briefly translate the 3 marks (in this order!): anicca impermanence & uncertainty in everything, dukkha unsatisfactoriness, bitterness, imperfection, suffering in everything anatta no self, soullessness, no permanent entity or essence as characterising all conditioned, samsaric existence & how essential they are to understanding the Buddhist world-view and practice. Anicca impermanence - the belief that all phenomena (mental & physical) are in a continuous state of change. Life is conceived of as a dynamic, causally conditioned process, a flow of life, rather than being composed of a series of separate, fixed, permanent entities or things. NB establish this central fact of life & its far-reaching implications ie. Spell out how all things change, from atomic particles to mountains, from material goods, to social status, from relationships to ones own looks, health, mood Dukkha ignorance of, or failure to understand or accept the truth of anicca results in craving that certain things & securities might not change or be swept away by the flow of life, by old age, sickness & death. This is to fight against the nature of life, and produces suffering, disappointment, frustration, anger, grief, etc Thus since even the most pleasant and ecstatic experiences are subject to anicca, we know that they too will pass and so are imperfect, characterised by Dukkha Dukkha, then, springs from deluded cravings that life might be other than it is.
Anatta - According to Buddhist teaching, one of the most persistent & underlying causes of dukkha is the delusion that things (and people) have a fixed, unchanging identity, soul or essence, a real, inner me. If anicca is true, however, the self or essence of any thing or person is not fixed, but fluid, a process of causally/karmically conditioned life (or dhammas in this usage of the term, a dhamma is a momentary component of the flow of reality) that is changing from moment to moment & from life to life. Under Buddhist analysis of the person, for eg., the 5 skandas (or heaps) form, sensation, perception, volition & consciousness are all constantly changing and thus contingent, not having independent existence. Having said this, the anatta teaching is primarily aimed at helping people to overcome attachment and ego-centred fears& concerns that create great cycles of dukkha. Eventually, through the practice of the 8-fold Path, a person can realise the truth of anatta and so become free of all selfish cravings & attachments, thereby attaining nibbana. Conclusion - Wow! The 3 Marks of Existence effectively spell out the Buddhist analyis of the human condition and indicate the way leading to its cure
[b] Anicca is the most important of the 3 Marks of Existence ??? [i] No, cos it might be argued that all 3 are equally important and interdependent parts of the Buddhist analysis of reality. Dukkha is the central theme of Buddhist teachings as a whole, especially in the 4 Noble Truths. Also, it is our painful experience of dukkha that gives us (both individually & as suffering mankind) the motive, & the urgency to wake up, change our destructive patterns of behaviour, and make progress on the spiritual journey to peace, unconditional love & enlightenment. Or, you could argue that anatta is the real underlying delusion and thus cause of the dukkha. If we could but realise the illusory nature of our own much cherished ego, its fears & attachments, then the suffering would cease and freedom come, man. Yo, freedom come! Perhaps quote the Buddha at his enlightenment here: Seeking but not finding the House Builder (ie. the self, ego, soul, atman) I travelled through the round of countless births. O painful is birth ever & again. House Builder you have now been seen. You shall not build the house again. (nice one, Sidd)
BUT [ii] Yes, anicca is the mostest, cos Anicca really is the underlying reality from which the Buddhist worldview of life as a fluid, dynamic process starts & on which the other two depend. In other words, if we ignore the truth of anicca, then we will suffer through ignorance & craving for life to be different & for our many 7 various securities to stay forever, and we will also fall victim to the delusion of having (or being) a separate, fixed self & experience all the suffering that comes with it, because we fail to pay attention to the transitory nature of all that we are (the heaps!). Geddit? Thus, it is anicca that provides both the experiental & the logical basis of the other two.
Conclusion Personally, Im with Anicca. Shes moody, and shes not to be argued with, but shes exciting too, and anyway, I lurve her! PS Adapt this for the other [b] variants of this question?
Life & work of the Buddha [a] Give an account of the Life & Work of the Buddha from the time of his enlightenment to his death. [25] NB: Read Denise, p.19-24 [b] To what extent do the stories of the Buddhas life imply that he was a supernatural being? [10] (or merely human?)
[a] Suggest Intro: Although the earlier part of his life is far & away the most famous, (at least in Western countries) his life & work after the transforming experience of his enlightenment was arguably far more important and influential for the content and character of the Buddhist movement as a whole {OK???} Start after the enlightenment with story of the God Brahma persuading Budd to teach others out of compassion, rather than passing into final nibbana. This will set the tone & mission of his life 1st Sermon on the 4 Nobs The setting in motion of the wheel of the dhamma in the Deer Park at Benares to the 5 ascetics. Followed by a sermon on the nature of the self All 5 become enlightened, now called arhats (worthy ones). Next 45 years travelling NE India teaching all kinds & castes of people & gaining followers to form the 4-fold Sangha, with hundreds (perhaps thousands) becoming enlightened. We have no connected chronological sequence for the many stories and sayings attributed to him, but later commentators have arranged the events in a sort of order that has become more or less accepted Within a year of enlightenment he had gained as many as a 1000 followers, including the influential King Bimbisara who donated land to the new movement. Demonstrating many psychic gifts, he also went back to his family in Kapilavastu, was reconciled with his father & aunt (who had brought him up, & who, after the fathers death 4 years later, became the 1st nun, despite the Buddhas initial objections) and brought his son, Rahula, into the monastic order. More land was given by rich admirers & converts across N India, & the pattern of staying on these lands for the duration of the Rains Retreat each year during the monsoon began Much time spent in debate with Brahmins, Jains & other Renouncer groups, during which he no doubt refined his own teachings. Also spent considerable time with Kings and rulers this shows his awareness of the amount of dukkha caused by social inequality & injustice As success came, so did jealousy of others and attempts to discredit & slander him, but these were successfully discredited Throughout his ministry, the Buddha taught whoever wanted to listen. Famous for his skilful means in adapting his teaching to get through to the person hes talking to. Eg. The grieving mother, Kisagotami. Also, constant work in evolving the monastic rule, or code of behaviour, among the monks & nuns to ensure peace & harmony & moderation
Death of Buddha, aged 80, [c.400 BCE] at Kusinara due to food poisoning. Message to his disciples : Work out your own salvation with effort, and let the dhamma be your teacher Went into deep meditation, the 4th Jhana, and so passed into final nibbana. This event is known as his Parinibbana. After his cremation a week later, some of his bones were distributed as relics between the diff. tribes & kingdoms Concl: Throughout this time, it is claimed, the Buddha lived in exemplary calm, insight & peace of mind. It is from this time, and due to the faithful memory of his disciples (espec. Ananda) that our knowledge of his teaching derives.
Alternative: you could forgo the attempted chronology & organise the material like this: Intro. & 1st three bullet-points the same then Work on organising the Sangha, developing the vinaya, etc The debates with other teachers & religious groups The teaching style, skilful means, with eg. Passing on the dhamma to the disciples The death & parinibbana. On reflection, I like this more! [b] To what extent do the stories of the life of the Buddha imply that he was more than merely human? [10] 1. Yes, they do, cos. the supernatural signs that greeted his virgin birth (give egs.) the apparent ease with which he excelled at everything, from sports to meditation the unique attainment of enlightenment (at least within this world system) & the extraordinary psychic powers and virtual omniscience he has developed. In fact he is shown to be greater than even the God Brahma, who begs him to forgo final nibbana & teach us poor ignorant mortals BUT 2. No, they dont, cos the tradition emphasises everyones ability to attain a similar enlightenment. that the Buddha is unique in discovering the Dhamma, but is definitely human. the Buddha is gently puts down faith in the power of the gods, to encourage people to DIY their journey to enlightenment. Note the need to remember that while the stories may encourage belief in the Buddha as a supernatural being, the stories date from some 3-400 years after his life, and emerge from the developing devotional schools of Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasise faith in the saving power of the Buddha and are a long way from the rational humanism of primitive Budd. Thus, we need, as ever, to be aware of the history of the history we read! Concl. perhaps the stories finally encourage us to have a much larger understanding of our own human potential. All kinds of insights & psychic powers may be available to us, and nature may be a lot more super than we have so far realised!
[a] Explain Buddhist teaching on Kamma and Rebecoming [25] [b] Buddhist beliefs about kamma are fatlastic [oops, but great typo!] fatalistic and unfair. Discuss. [10]
[a] Intro. These ideas were already present in India, but as we will see they were adopted and developed by the Buddha to fit in with his own radical re-imagining of the nature of existence. Kamma lit. actions. Originally, espec. Ritually significant actions (eg. sacrifice, etc.) that had the power to move the gods in your favour. How the idea was developed and changed by the Budd. into See typed notes on this & learn it! >> applies to all moral action >> kamma as intention (individualistic, internal psychologising more than external, religious ritual >> stresses personal moral responsibility >> general definition: K a natural & impersonal law of cause & effect both moral & physical, inherent in the nature of things, that governs the process of rebecoming from moment to moment & from life to life. You reap what you sow spell out seeds & fruits stuff. & relate to the cultivation of skilful, wholesome states of mind & behaviour. The 3 Roots of Unskilful Action (greed, hatred & delusion) >> Roots of skilful action (generosity, kindness & wisdom/insight) point towards effects of past lives & effects on future lives,
Beings are inferior, exalted, beautiful, ugly, well-faring, ill-faring according to their Kamma.
Thus, move naturally on to Samsara lit. wandering on etc. and generally to idea of the beginningless cycle of life, death & re-birth (see sheet on this!) whereby beings are re-born in the 3 Realms, 11 levels and 32 planes of existence (plane 26 for humans!) according to their past actions/kamma Buddha adapted early Brahmanical view of the reincarnation of an unchanging atman, to his own idea of life as a continually unfolding process of rebecoming without any unchanging entity passing from life to life (anatta) (NB treat the Realms briefly its not the main thing for those examiners) Relate to teaching on causes of dukkha & general implications (see sheet) Conclusion : Note K & S integral part of the Buddhas moral vision of life & the universe with Kamma expressing his belief in universal justice, beyond the reach of human (or divine!) interference, manipulation or partiality.
[b] Buddhist belief in kamma is fatalistic & leads to uncaring attitudes. Discuss [10] Yes it is, cos (some would argue that ) Actions done in some irrecoverable past can seriously affect your present experience & there seems to be nothing you can do about it. Eg. physical handicap from birth. Ie., because you cant change the past, yer stuck with the present. It is your personal fate. This seems v. unfair, cos Ive done nothing to deserve this inherited suffering (or blessing) in my present life. Why should I take the Kammic kickback from some other beings life in the past??? This can lead to uncaring attitudes towards peoples suffering & the view that they deserve it & we shouldnt interfere with justice in case it stops them learning from their mistakes. (Yuk) But No, it isnt cos The above views are based on misunderstandings of Buddhist teachings Thus According to B. teachings, the life we have now arises in dependence on and is conditioned by our former lives. Hence our experience now is not actually unfair. In fact it leads to a realistic & compassionate awareness of all beings living their lives and dealing with their own problems, limitations, physical & psychological difficulties. Thus the teaching on kamma & rebecoming should not be taken in isolation from Budd. teaching on compassion, harmlessness, kindness, etc. There are plenty of examples of compassionate engaged Buddhist action on behalf of the suffering & underprivileged. If we are judgmental or indifferent to the sufferings of fellow beings, then we will be kammically responsible for it! This view also expresses the obvious idea that we are born with all kinds of characteristics, (physical & mental) about which we can do very little. Hence the fatalism tag. But the Budd. insists that we do have sufficient freedom to change (espec. In the way in which we think & experience) our lives. But realistically, we cant change everything.
[a] Outline and Explain Buddhist teaching on rebirth. [25] [b] To what extent is it necessary for a Buddhist to believe in Rebirth? [10] OK, so this is a bit too detailed & long-wordy for 20 minutes, but the outlines and what to include should a help a bit, shouldnt it, sweet ducklings??? Use the bold bits to construct a skeleton revision plan? Introduction... Indian background Buddhist teaching on rebirth was to a considerable extent adopted and adapted from the mainstream Indian (Hindu) belief in Samsara and reincarnation. According to this, all beings pass through a virtually endless cycle of life, death & rebirth, as they make progress towards liberation (or not) dependent on their kamma or moral actions. While Hinduism claims that there is a fixed, unchanging essence, soul or atman that is reincarnated (literally reenfleshed) in a new body, Buddhism asserts that there is no such fixed entity as the atman that passes from life to life, and consequently prefer the term rebirth or rebecoming. As we will see, while the anatta teaching has all kinds of sublime benefits as a strategy to overcome our attachment to the ego-self, it also poses considerable problems & differences of opinion among Buddhists Re-birth as continuous process in Buddhist thought. Consistent with (in line with) B teaching on anicca & anatta, B.s understand the nature of all samsaric life to be a continuously evolving, causally conditioned process, within which nothing is fixed or static, but has contingent existence only as the causes & conditions necessary for its existence arise and cease. As seen in the teaching of Dependent Origination, everything about us, our physical bodies, feelings, perceptions, mental formations (or karmically conditioned mindset) and consciousness [ie the 5 heaps or aggregates], virtually spins itself into existence moment by moment as suffering beings reach out in pain and ignorance to grasp at yet more unsatisfactory experience. Moment to moment & life to life... Thus, it is clearly important to understand that B teaching on rebirth, or rebecoming, refers to this continuous life process as a whole. We are being re-born in each causally linked moment. The continuity of our sense of self & identity is thus explained by the way in which our past actions, intentions & reactions (kamma) condition our present experience. Another way of saying this that the person I am now is shaped and formed by everything that I have done and experienced in the past. The idea of a succession of different lives is simply an extension of this same principle, or as Denise Cush puts it: Death & rebirth is simply a more dramatic part of this process [p.37]
If no self, then what is reborn and how? As we have seen, a person is a series of causally linked moments. At death the 5 heaps (aggregates) of a person disintegrate and come apart. As D. Side puts it: Death, then, is simply the separation of the mind and the body or, to be more precise, the separation of a cluster of mental processes from a cluster of physical processes. [p.111] While the physical aspects of the person thus come to an end, the momentum of the minds unfulfilled cravings becomes the cause and condition of a new life, not unlike a form of kinetic energy. It is this that is re-born. No thing, substance, soul or atman passes from one life to the next. Mind the gap! Between lives different Buddhist views. According to Theravada Buddhism, the last moment of the persons karmically conditioned consciousness, or mind-stream becomes the first moment of the new life. The gap between the two is similar to the gap that exists between any two moments of consciouness in life [D. Side p.113]. Different schools of Buddhism have developed various theories of a more extended time between lives, such as the Tibetan Bardo of 49 days, which help to explain how a particular mindstream choses its next life, including suitable parents & genetic material according to its kamma. Rebirth & kamma... According to Buddhist thought, kamma, intention, the will, has immense creative power, for the consequences of any action (mental or physical) will be played out, if not within a single lifetime, then in the course of several lives, because a seed (or karmically active intention cause) planted in the flow of samsaric existence eventually bears fruit as an effect. This is used to explain the great differences in fortune and psychological make-up between people. We could add that we will be re-born whether we believe in it or not because of the law of Kamma, of cause and effect.
Rebirth & Samsara... Finally, it should be said that beings can be reborn in any of the 31 planes, and 6 realms of Samsaric existence. These, not unlike different frequencies of consciousness, range from the infinitely subtle & blissful to the brutish hell-realms. A human rebirth is greatly to be prized in Buddhism because of the combination of suffering and freedom that allows us to make rapid spiritual progress towards enlightenment.
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[b] To what extent is it necessary for Buddhists to believe in rebirth? [10] This is a bit wordy & repetitive too sorry! First Spell out the different possible meaning of Rebirth on one level it refers to the idea of reincarnation life after life, and on the deeper level refers to the moment by moment process of our karma coming into effect Yes, because.... As we have seen, the analysis of the our causally conditioned re-birth from moment to moment is central to the whole Buddhist understanding of reality, of the way things are, and all Buddhists would adhere to it one way or another. Re-birth from life to life is also widely accepted in Buddhist cultures, and also has the authority of the Buddhas own enlightenment experience, when it is claimed he saw his own past lives, and this alone would lead many to accept the teaching without too much difficulty. Note: interestingly, the spiritual experience of holy men in India carries great weight as a kind of empirical proof of their teachings. Re-birth from life to life gives great explanatory depth and power to the Buddhist understanding of life and the spiritual journey. People are not simple, and the idea of accumulating karmically conditioned psychological traits (habits, behavioural patterns) through countless lifetimes does justice to the complexity of human nature. In contrast to the fear and panic often caused by the traditional Xtian view of one life and then the Judgement, it also gives time, opportunity and thus reallistic hope of making spiritual progress...
But no, its not necessary in terms of life to life rebirth because ... It can seem too speculative and metaphysical for Buddhists who take the Buddhas emphasis on testing all ideas and beliefs in their own personal experience, and not to go by hearing, by tradition, by reasoning or out of respect for a holy teacher [The Buddha - see Denise Cush p.2]. So, more sceptical Buddhists might argue, how are we supposed to prove re-birth from life to life in our own experience when we are necessarily inside the life were in now?! That aint possible.
The Buddhas parable of the man wounded by a poison arrow makes the point very clear that it is foolish to spend your life theorising about such matters, when we it would make more sense to simply pull the arrow out by applying the Buddhas teachings on how overcome the causes of dukkha in the here and now. In fact, in one early Buddhist Sutra (scripture) the Buddha says if there is no rebirth..., then we would still have a much happier & more fulfilling experience in this life if we practice the 8-fold Path, Morality, Wisdom and Meditation. After all, if there are future lives, the only way to
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change them for the better will be to sort out this one, since any future life will be conditioned by what we do (or dont do) now! Thus, as S. Batchelor says in Buddhism without Beliefs: speculation about past & future lives is just another distraction [p.35] from the real business of transforming our experience today!
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Religious background [a] Describe the nature of Hinduism in the time of the Buddha. [25] [b] To what extent might the Buddha be described as the founder of a new religion? [10] NB: This same question could be asked as To what extent might the Buddha be described as a reformer of Hinduism? (same deal!) [a] Intro. Set time & place of Buddhas life N. India, Ganges plain c. 5600/480BCE Time of societal transition and religious/philosophical development. Hinduism trace origins in Aryanism & Indus Valley culture from c 1,500 BCE on Gods nature spirits >>> polytheism Hymns to these goods found in The Vedas. These scriptures were given great authority by the priests (Brahmins) and underpinned the system of elaborate ritual, chant & animal sacrifice that was held to sustain the on-going creation & existence of the world, as well the well-being of the people The Vedas were also used to underpin the social hierarchy, espec. the caste system that was just beginning to take serious root at this time. Ones place in society (& general state of being) was dependent on your past life Karma (particularly linked in this early Hinduism (Brahmanism) to ritual action (performing ones religious & social duty) Note the neat game, set & match this gave to the hereditary ruling classes & their priests!
NOW move on the RENOUNCER tradition (Shramana movement), seen as a reaction against this increasingly rigid, authoritarian establishment form of religion. Renouncers were typically from Warrior/ruling class (Kshatriyas) who chose to leave to life & duties of the householder to seek religious truth & enlightenment. Some solitary, but others joined groups led by various gurus, each with their own particular teachings & practices. Key issues for them were to do with the soul (atman) & ultimate reality (Brahman), reincarnation (an idea just taking root at this time), and detachment from material things & society. Key practices were yoga of various kinds (including meditation a practice that may date back to pre-Aryan Indus valley religion), and tapas (ascetic self-disciplines) some very extreme
Concl: The traditional life of Buddha traces Siddarthas progress through both establishment & dissident forms of Hinduism Note: set up answer to part [b]
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[b] To wot extent might the Buddha be described as the founder of a new religion? [10] Personally, Id go 1. No, hes just reformer/developer of Hinduism at a key early point in its development (& explain why), and then knock that down by claiming that 2. he really was bringing something radically new, not just to 5th cent. India, but to the world! (& explain why), with a naughty little concl. That questions whether Buddhism is a religion at all or more of an ethical philosophy So 1. Reformer? Nothing new arises out of a vacuum, so Budd arose out of Hindu context and of course he was profoundly influenced by the ideas and debates of his time. How could he not be? The question here is, the extent to which he adapted existing ideas into his own system, or reacted against them so much that he really did start something new Thus, in favour of the reformer view NB: Continuity of Buddhism as part of Shramana Tradition. Budd as a yet another wandering, mendicant (begging) religious seekers grouped round a revered guru & his teachings, and developing their own code of behaviour (the Vinaya) as they went. Continuity of general quest for enlightenment & transcendent peace Karma (though sharpened), meditation, detachment, self-discipline & rebirth (though modified). So far not so very different BUT 2. Founder? Rejected authority of Vedic scriptures in favour of personal experience as the guide to truth with this came his rejection of the ritual & chanting as being superstitious & cruel to the animals - developed more rational, pragmatic, personally experiential approach, based on ethical behaviour & an internalised understanding of Karma as intention or to do with ones motives. He also rejected the extremes of asceticism as harmful to oneself & the quest. Thus the hereditary priesthood & the religiously sanctioned inequalities of the caste system had no place in the Bs new movement (open to all castes & none) Also rejected key religious concepts like belief in the ultimate authority of God/the gods & belief in the soul (as a fixed unchanging entity)! So B. more a critic of religion than the founder of one. An amazing breath of rational, practical & moral fresh air in a seething ocean of primitive superstitions, polytheism and sophisticated religious thought Blah
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The Middle Way [a] Describe & explain what is meant by the Middle Way. [25] [b] To what extent is it either practical or helpful to adopt the middle way? [10] [a] Intro. - The M-Way needs to be understood in the context of the Buddhas time - you cant identify the middle without knowing whats on either side! As we will see, these sides are not just specific to 5th century BC India, but of universal relevance The M-Way as the 8-fold Path, the 4th of the 4 Nobs and thus the Way leading to the cessation of dukkha. Quickly set them out with brief explanatory comments. Why is this called a Middle Way? Cos firstly, it charts a course between the two extremes common in the Buddhas day, and which he himself explored and found wanting These are [a] the quest for happiness through the pleasure of the senses (luxury, sensuality, wealth, power, social status, etc.), which he describes as low, common, unprofitable & the way of the ordinary people (!), ie., it doesnt work & it makes you sad in the end! AND [b] the quest for happiness through self-mortification & various forms of asceticism (extreme self-denial, lack of food, sleep, and worse), which he describes as painful, unworthy & unprofitable ie., it doesnt work & it makes you ill! NOTE: These two extremes, in various subtle & not so subtle ways describe a great deal of Mankinds activity Think about it BUT the M-Way (says Sidd) is that which gives vision & knowledge, which leads to Calm, Insight & Enlightenment! The idea is balance, control, appropriateness in all things, leading progressively to increasing detachment from things and emotional compulsions, & ever deeper understanding & clarity about what is real. Cool ie. it works! [If theres time???] In Buddhism the Middle Way is also an important philosophical position between the extremes of eternalism and nihilism. Both of these positions, their claims about the real existence or non-existence of God and the Soul (Atman), and the far-reaching & harmful implications are undermined by the Buddhas central teaching of Conditioned Arising, or Interconnectedness, in which reality is seen as a fluid ever-changing process. The Middle Way shows how to have a Right Understanding of reality so that life can be lived as it actually is, not how wed like or fear it to be
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[b] To what extent is it either practical or useful to follow the Middle Way? [10] Impractical/Impossible because (one might argue) [i] in ordinary life, there is no time to follow such a detailed programme [ii] if you had too many scruples about having a right livelihood or causing no harm to any living being, by speech, action or even intention, then youd never actually do anything, let alone mangage to earn a living! [iii] The life of mindfulness & meditation is only really suited to a protected, specially constructed monastic life. [iv] more generally, charting a middle way between emotional involvement in a relationship and heartless non-attachment seems virtually impossible!
Practical & useful because (one might argue) (mightnt one?) [i] The Middle Way (8-fold Path) is deliberately open ie., you can practice each of the factors at ones own level. Thus, you just do yer best you dont have to be a monk. They are guidelines, aspects of life to bear in mind & keep working on as best you can, not absolute commandments with dire punishments attached [ii] The Middle Way is refreshingly rational, grounded in obvious realities when you stop to think of it, and a wonderfully useful corrective to the usual mad dash & grab of an unreflective life [iii] Nobody said relationships & personal feelings were going to be easy(!), and the M-Way understanding could turn out to be very wise & helpful Conclusion??? - Best to take the Buddhas advice & try it out as best we can, & see if it works for us Better to know through personal experience than to stand by the river with your nicely built raft and never try it out cos it looks too difficult or strange
NB: You might get a [b] question asking you to assess the relative importance of one or other part or section of the 8-Fold Path Remember: Argue For its importance first saying why a person might think this of right intention or right action (both related to Karma & the creation of negative/positive states of mind & futures), but then say how essential all the others are (with egs) & how the 8 factors are really meant to be worked on all together, not individually or consecutively.
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[a] Explain the importance of taking refuge in the Buddha for Buddhists today. [25]
1. Make general points about the Three Refuges & taking refuge & its significance. It helps if you work in plenty of knowledge and appreciation of Buddhist teachings etc. as you go along. Refuge as the most fundamental of Buddhist practices What the three refuges represent on a deeper level The different reasons and expectations that people have when they take refuge. i.e. monks/laypeople, Pureland Buddhists, etc
2. Spell out the points from your notes on the Buddha as refuge - add the thought that by doing this one gradually comes to share in the mind and point of view of the enlightened being, of the Buddha at his enlightenment, and see the world with infinite understanding and compassion, and thus also with a passion to help
[b] To what extent is it fair to say that Buddhists worship the Buddha? [10] Yes, it might well seem that way, because
On a popular level, amongst less educated lay Buddhists, it is clear that the offerings of prayer, sacred food & flowers, and the devotions before Buddha images & at holy shrines, certainly look like the kind of worship reserved for a God. In fact, even in the Theravada country of Sri Lanka, for example, the local belief is that the Buddha gave the Island over to the care of a local God (pictured in the Hindu manner with six arms). The Buddha himself seems to have been elevated far beyond this.
Add to this the belief that the Buddha attained all perfections and omniscience at his enlightenment, is called Lord, knower of worlds, etc. and it not hard to argue that the Buddha actually fulfills the role and function of God in the mind of many Buddhists.
The Buddhist tradition is essentially atheistic in rejecting the truth/reality of an all-powerful, all-loving creator God (eg. Brahma), and while not actively condemning the worship of other deities, has always encouraged Buddhists to rely on ones own effort instead.
Similarly, Buddhism has always emphasized the point that the Buddha was a human being like the rest of us, albeit unique in rediscovering & exemplifying the Dhamma, but even so, definitely not a god.
The Buddha himself requested that his disciples follow the Dhamma, not him, and that each person has to practice & test & validate the Path for themselves.
Conclusion: Though clearly given the highest respect by Buddhists as the one who awoke and brought the key to happiness and release from the sufferings of Samsara, what looks like worship from the outside may in fact be a way of connecting with & deepening ones own spiritual potential for Buddhahood.
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[b] Taking refuge in the Dhamma is more important than the others. Discuss. [10] NB: You can adapt many of these ideas the other likely b-parts on the 3 Refs.
Many would answer that all three refuges are of equal importance to practicing Buddhists and that Buddhism is simply inconceivable without all three. Thus they might argue that
each of them is dependent on the others for its origination and continued existence. >> No Buddha >> No Dhamma >> No Sangha. In this it bears out the truth of Dependent Origination.
However, you might think that this makes Refuge in the Buddha more important, since without his depth, courage and example the Dharma would not have been re-discovered and the Sangha not created.
Similarly, without the Sangha, Buddhists would never have heard of either the Buddha or the Dhamma. However, note that the Buddhas dying instructions to his disciples was to make the Dhamma their leader & their guide. Further, without the Dhamma, the Sangha would have nothing to practice, teach & pass on!
Thus the Dhamma is the most important, not as a set of intellectual ideas, but as the practice & way of life that actually creates the conditions of personal freedom & happiness and frees people from the experience & causes of their sufferings, and ultimately from Samsara itself.
Further, the Dhamma underlies all else, has always been, and only awaited re-discovery by Shakyamuni in this world-age. Thus we could say that both the Sangha and even the Buddha himself are taking refuge in the Dhamma.
As we will see, in Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha and the Sangha come to be seen as skilful means, compassionate projections & temporal manifestations of the Dhamma-kaya, the Ultimate Truth.
Finally, however, Buddhism is unique in warning against attachment to its own teachings (Dhamma), and the Buddha famously compared the Dhamma to a raft essential to cross the flood of Samsara, but to let go of like everything else once its purpose has been served.
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Teacher resources
Glossary
A
Abhidhamma pitaka Ahimsa Ajivakas Akusala Alms round Alms Anatta the section of the tipitaka focused on philosophical matters. non-harming one of the five precepts within Buddhism. a shramana movement at the time of the Buddha. non-skilful the daily walk around the village to collect food undertaken by village dwelling bhikkhus gifts of clothes, food and material goods to the monks literally meaning no-self, refers to the Buddhist rejection of the Hindu concept of an eternal self one of the three marks of existence impermanence the concept that nothing is eternal and unchanging one of the three marks of existence one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara someone who believes that at death there is nothing which continues on to another life in any form in the Theravada tradition one who has gained enlightenment following the teachings of a Buddha a group of early settlers in Northern India one who practises austerities for religious reasons ruler of the Magadhan empire from 268 BCE the Hindu concept of an eternal, unchanging self ignorance one of the three poisons
Anicca Animal realm Annihilationist Arhat Aryans Ascetic Asoka Atman Avijja
B
Bhikkhuni Bhikkhu Bodhi tree Bodhicitta Bodhisattva path Bodhisattva a Buddhist nun a Buddhist monk the tree under which the Buddha is believed to have achieved enlightenment a moment in which the thought of enlightenment occurs, often seen as a pre-cursor to setting out on the bodhisattva path the path outlined within Mahayana Buddhism to achieve Buddhahood a Buddha-to-be. Also used to refer to someone who has made a commitment to follow the path to Buddhahood, and/or has reached a certain stage along the path. the creator god within Hinduism the underlying reality, or ultimate God within Hinduism. Sometimes used as a term to refer to Hindu priests. the religious practices of the Brahmins Hindu priests or holy men a term meaning 'awakened one' used to refer to those who have gained enlightenment
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Glossary
D
Deities Demi-gods realm Dependent origination Dhamma body Dhamma Dukkha gods one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara the Buddhist doctrine explaining how everything is dependent upon a prior cause one of the three bodies of the Buddha in the trikaya doctrine the teachings of the Buddha, or the eternal truth loosely translated as suffering or unsatisfactoriness
E
Eightfold path Enlightenment see noble eightfold path being freed from greed, hatred and delusion, and thus 'seeing the world as it really is'
F
Five Precepts Folk religion a Buddhist code of ethics a generic term used to refer to the religious practices of the poor in society at the time of the Buddha, who did not follow the Brahmanical traditions a bhikkhu who is living in solitude away from the laity a summary of the Buddha's key teachings the four things seen by Siddhartha which led him to seek a cure for dukkha - death, sickness, old age and a wandering ascetic bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, lay men and lay women
G
Gods realm one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara
H
Hell realm Human realm Hungry ghosts realm one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara one of the realms of rebirth within the wheel of samsara
I
Indus Valley civilization an early Indian civilisation
J
Jainism Jatis Jhanas Jiva the religion founded by Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha the castes within the Hindu varna system meditation states the individual self within some forms of Hinduism
K
Kamma (p) / karma (s) Kammic consequences Kammic formations Khandhas King Milinda the concept that every action has a reaction the results of kammic actions or formations the actions which lead to kammic consequences the five factors which make up an individual a Greek king famous within Buddhism for his reputed conversation with the bhikkhu Nagasena about anatta and kamma the ruling or warrior class within the Hindu varna system skilful
Kshatriyas Kusala
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Teacher resources
L
Laity Those within Buddhism who have chosen not to become bhikkhus or bhikkhunis
M Magga Mahavira Mahayana Buddhism Maitreya Merit Mara Materialists Middle-way the fourth noble truth referring to the path of the middle-way or the eightfold path the founder of Jainism. A contemporary of the Buddha. one branch of Buddhism, literally meaning 'Great Vehicle' in Theravada Buddhism the next Buddha, currently residing in the Tusita heaven the positive kammic results of skilful action the 'devil' figure within Buddhism, who is technically a god, but tries to distract the Buddha from gaining enlightenment one of the shramana movements at the time of the Buddha, who focused on the material aspects of life the middle path between luxury and asceticism followed by the Buddha, and exemplified in the eightfold path
Monastic sangha (twofold) a term used to refer to the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis
N
Nagasena Nibbana (p) / nirvana (s) Nirodha Noble Eightfold Path a bhikkhu famous for a reputed conversation with King Milinda in which he explains anatta and kamma literally translated as 'blown out'. A state in which no greed, hatred or delusion is experienced. the third noble truth that dukkha can cease (nibbana) the fourth noble truth the path to follow to achieve nibbana. Can be followed at two levels the ordinary level for the laity and the noble level for the monastic sangha.
P
Pali Canon Panna Parinibbana Pattimokkha ceremony an English term for the tipitaka referring to the fact it is written in Pali wisdom often applied to one division of the eightfold path covering Right Understanding and Right Thought final nibbana the nibbana achieved when the body dies, and no rebirth within samsara follows a fortnightly meeting at which the bhikkhus or bhikkhunis recite the vinaya rules, and report any infringements of the rules
R
Rebecoming the process by which kammic consequences lead the khandhas to reform into a new body after death
S
Sacrifice Samadhi the making of an offering, often to a deity state of meditation, or the third division of the eightfold path covering Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration the cycle of life, death and rebirth the second noble truth that suffering arises due to craving the Buddhist community
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Glossary
Sceptics / Agnostics
terms used to refer to a diverse range of shramana movements at the time of the Buddha who rejected religious answers to the philosophical issues of the time the tribe or family into which the Buddha was born the historical Buddha, referred to by his tribal or family name a term for those who had rejected society and adopted a wandering lifestyle at the time of the Buddha the name of the historical Buddha morality, often applied to one division or aspect of the eightfold path covering Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood refers to someone who has entered the path to nibbana within the Theravada tradition. a monument or religious building. Originally built to house relics of the Buddha, many now contain other Buddhist relics. the peasant or working class within the Hindu varna system happiness or contentment, often contrasted with dukkha one part of the Pali Canon, primarily consisting of suttas containing the teaching of the Buddha
Shakya Shakyamuni Buddha Shramanas Siddhartha Gautama Sila Stream-enterer Stupa Sudras Sukkha Sutta pitaka
T
Tanha Tathagatagarbha Theravada Buddhism Three marks of existence Three poisons Three refuges craving Buddha embryo or Buddha nature, referring to the essence of Buddhahood within each person one branch of Buddhism, literally meaning 'The Way of the Elders' anatta, anicca and dukkha the three factors which define life Greed, Hatred and Delusion the three factors which drive the wheel of dependent origination the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha the refuges or jewels in which Buddhists seek support and comfort while practising the Buddhist path translated as 'three baskets' it refers to the Buddhists scriptures commonly known in the West as the the Pali Canon a Mahayana doctrine describing that Buddhas have three forms or bodies
U
Upanishads Upasikas Hindu scriptures a term for female lay Buddhists, today often used to refer to unordained women who follow the traditional lifestyle of a bhikkhuni
V
Vaishyas Varnas Vedas Vedic Viharas Village-dwelling monk Vinaya pitaka Vinaya rules the merchants or traders in the Hindu varna system the four divisions or classes within the Hindu 'caste' system early Hindu scriptures relating to the Vedas a Buddhist monastery a monk who lives in a vihara in close proximity to the laity the section of the tipitaka dealing with the rules for the monastic sangha the rules to be followed by the monastic sangha
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