Applied Anthropology, its Contribution to Development and Planning, and its Ethical Dilemmas. Carolyn Colleran.

Abstract: The following paper briefly examines the historical beginnings of applied anthropologgy and its current role in planning and development. The paper attempts to show that applied anthropology is a worthwhile element of the anthropological discipline. Due to the sensitivity of data, precautions against falsification and manipulation of data is essential. Applied Anthropologists routinely face ethical and moral dilemmas as a result of the very nature of the data and issues they address.

Today the world is in crisis. Much of the world's natural resources have been depleted, seriously affecting the world's delicate ecological balance, of which humankind is a part. In the absence of responsible resource management much of the world's forests, plains, and waterways have been decimated with adverse impacts on the world's "small-scale" indigenous societies. Anthropologists have a role to play in resource management and development of territories, . This paper will detail the role of applied anthropologists in development and planning. It will demonstrate the notion that applied anthropology, unlike "pure" anthropology, allows the anthropologist to become actively involved and thereby, take a stance, if necessary, for the benefit of the indigenous people being studied. This paper will also touch briefly on the ethical dilemmas that applied anthropologists may be confronted with whilst in the field Anthropology as a study of humankind has many applications. Anthropologists have the ability to use their skills in various areas, from teaching and research to planning and development. "Ever since anthropology has existed as a research discipline, it has had a practical, problem-solving aspect' (van Willigen, 1993:vii), historically labelled applied anthropology which includes practice, development, research and development anthropology, and advocacy anthropology (van Willigen, 1993:vii). 'Applied anthropology refers to research and activities intended to produce a desired sociocultural condition that optimally will improve the lives of the people concerned' (Howard, 1993:369). Applied anthropology is pro-active. Unlike those anthropologists who go with a "value free" position into the field to study a society, applied anthropologists enter an arena prepared to take a stance, or act, for the good of the population so as to attempt to prevent any harmful events. They can become actively involved as peoples' advocates and 'this position suggests that applied anthropology should assume social responsibility' (Sodusta, 1993:324). However, applied anthropology has been a "tool" of governments and private agencies for some considerable time. The mid-eighteenth century marked the beginning of mechanised mass production, that is, the industrial revolution. Under the premise of "progress", this change in means of production and subsequent increased need for natural resources, was a catalyst for much social change in Europe and consequently, via colonisation, the rest of the world. "Progress" led to 'an unprecedented assault on the world's relatively stable tribal peoples and their resources' (Bodley, 1975:2). Anthopology can be seen as a tool, for example, when the British were colonising parts of Asia because they realised 'the

usefulness of anthropology for understanding remote cultures and exotic' populations' (Sodusta, 1993:325). The British used anthopological data to provide training for their officers, planners, and technicians in public policy, and modified parts of the indigenous culture to conform with the British ideals of society. Since "first contact", much of the world has been dramatically transformed. Small-scale, subsistence societies have all but vanished, natural resources have been consistently depleted, and the rate of irreversible environmental damage has intensified (Dodge, 1976:203). Such transformation can be explained by the increase in material consumption of Western industrial societies. Industrial societies place great emphasis on continual economic growth and progress, 'characteristically measur[ing] "standard of living" in terms of levels of material consumption' (Bodley, 1975:4). Alternately, small-scale socieities place emphasis on subsistence needs, and accumulation of wealth 'is rarely the basis of social stratification' (Bodley, 1975:4). The contrast between the two types of societies is the basis of incompatibilities which cause problems and misunderstandings 'during the modernization process' (Bodley, 1975:4). When cultures collide, particularly two as contrasting as Western industrial culture and small-scale subsistence culture, cultural change is inevitable. Cultural collision has been either by accident through exploration, planned action through colonisation, or overseas development programs. Regardless of the impetus for collision, small-scale indigenous societies have been and are affected by cultural change and ecological environmental damage. When it comes to implementing development programs in small-scale societies, anthropological knowledge can be used to increase understanding with regards to the way in which a society functions. This knowledge may aid in the preservation of ethnic or cultual integrity and can help to 'predict the outcome of a programme, without creating new problems, or to find adequate remedies before they become manifest' (Sodusts, 1993:326), thereby attempting to ensure the success of the program, first time round. Various aspects, such as communication, team work and a multi-disciplinary approach, aid in the success of development programs. Fruitful communication between social scientists, administrators and the indigenous population is essential. Involving the indigenous population in the decision-making process allows them to become a part of the research process, rather than simply the object of the research (Tyson, 1995). 'Programs which are constructed of local input are more likely to be accepted by the local group' (Rogers and Shoemaker cited Robins, 1985:15), rather than programs forced upon them without adequate explanation, by government authorities. A development program's success is, as mentioned above, dependent upon the acceptance of the program by those it is designed for. To this end, anthropologists play a vital role 'bring[ing] to [the development] team, detailed knowledge of the people in an area, and the holistic, integrated perspective that is essential to successful planning' (Howard, 1993:370). With a multi-disciplinary approach, the other members of the team, such as technicians, agronomists, engineers and economists, can be better informed, and thus, be able to better formulate and implement their plans. The main objective of the applied anthropologist is to somehow, and in whatever capacity, improve the quality of life of those people who are under study. This may 'simply be a matter of keeping them from being exterminated or being reduced to even lower levels of poverty' (Howard, 1993:369). Anthropologists are able to achieve this objective, to a degree, by using their knowledge of the people, to help foster understanding by the other team members involved in the development program. For example, anthropologists, when

involved in land reform programs or birth control programs, are able to point out constraints in the belief system of people which may hinder the program's success, or they may point to 'institutions which can be mobilised and on which the proposed reforms or projects can be built' (Cochrane, 1976:8). Anthropologists, with their holistic approach to research, are also able to demonstrate how political, economic, social and cultural forces need to be taken into account when planning development, so as to reduce the impact that proposed plans will have on all concerned. It is for this reason that, 'applied anthropology is concerned with both explicit and implicit forms of change' (Sodusta, 1993:337). Cultural change results from any development program whether social, such as birth control, or physical, such as the implementation of irrigation programs. And all forms of change impact on other aspects of the indigenous society. Because one form of development 'constitutes only one aspect of [the] social change' (Sodusta, 1993:336), it may engender an incorrect analysis in the first place and can have dire effects on a community. In the field, an applied anthropologist will experience more than a few dilemmas, either physical, social, or bureaucratic. Many have expressed the hostility they felt whilst working within a development team. Sacherer states that potential applied anthropologists should realize that 'having detractors, even antagonists, is probably an inevitable part of working in such a controversial and stress-filled occupation' (Sacherer, 1986:254). Hoben also states that the hositility is mainly due to the 'pessimistic adversary role' (Hoben cited Sacherer, 1986:254), that anthropologists play, due to the fact that their sympathies usually always lie with the villagers, as opposed to the bureaucrats (Sacherer, 1986:254). Hoben has suggested administrators of bureaucracies believe that anthropologists are 'too narrowly trained,...interested in only long-term research,...are hypercritical [and make] too few constructive suggestions' (Hoben, 1982:354). It has been suggested that anthropologists need to become more familiar with bureaucratic processes and become familiar with 'documents and procedures, get involved early, be constructive and be realistic about facing data constraints' (Greeley cited Hoben, 1982:362-363). Sacherer explains that prior to designing any development program, an 'in depth anthropological survey of the needs and problems of the targeted peoples of the region' (Sacherer, 1986:249), is needed so that the practical programs can be planned accordingly. The ethical perspective of applied anthropology, is still under widespread debate. Applied anthopology, by its very nature of "pro-activism", contradicts the very basic principles of anthropology, that is, to watch and learn but not to intervene. But, as Sacherer explains, how can she 'in good conscience sit now on the sidelines, living in comfort provided in part by the money [she] saved while working with the villagers' (Sacherer, 1986:260). When an anthropologist decides to become actively involved s/he must keep in mind how the information gathered will eventually be used.When conducting sensitive research the anthropologist must be aware of any "hidden" agendas which may be associated with the commissioning agency, and must always be aware that their data can be manipulated to the disadvantage of the people being studied and to the benefit of the agency. Thus, 'anthropologists can find themselves caught between the demands of their funding agency and the people they study' (Sodusta, 1993:329). In conclusion, development in its most general sense implies some kind of improvement in the quality of human lives (Howard, 1993:360). To achieve this objective, aid organisations such as the World Bank, have recently introduced new requirements advocating the usefulness of anthropological analysis. By doing so, they are attempting to ensure the success of their development programs by making sure all team members are fully aware of the project's effects on the socio-cultural aspects of the indigenous societies (World Bank cited in Hoben, 1982:362).

Hoben explains that the true value of anthropological contribution to development work, is to 'challenge and clarify, and hence revise explicit and implicit assumptions made by those responsible for planning and implementing development policies' (Hoben cited in Sacherer, 1986:259). Hence applied anthroplogy is plagued by ethical, social and bureaucratic dilemmas. Although an often stressful and time-consuming occupation which can leave the anthropologist with a feeling of confusion and frustration, applied anthropolgy ultimately apppears to be a very worthwhile contribution to the anthropological discipline.

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AXIS. Journal of Social Science Students. Vol 1 No 1 February 1997.