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Todays Lecture
Why is this important ? Packing Porosity Definition Types Sandstones and Carbonates

Packing, Porosity, and Permeability

Permeability Definition Relationship to porosity Porosity Development with depth as a function of Porosity and scale Links und Literatur

Why do we need a porous system ? Permits storage (porosity) and transmission (permeability) of liquids and gases Fundamentals of civilisation water Heat, convection and conduction Mineralizing solutions

Packing in loose sand (Simplification: spheres, loose)

Porosity is independent of grain size Porosity is dependent of packing Packing is dependent on depositional and diagenetic history

Rhombic packing (coordination number = 8: = 0.26)

Cubic packing Coordination number = 6; = 0.42)

Packing in loose sand

Packing: Approximating Reality grain sizes due to to sorting (eolian vs. alluvial fan)

Differences in packing in recent dunes (fine-grained quartz sand)

grain shapes and orientations Avalanches Grain fall

Saltation Lithologies / solubility

47 % 39 %

43 %

Schenk (1981)

Degree of cementation

Fundamental Reservoir Properties

Packing (and Porosity) in sandstones is therefore dependent on

Porosity (; to store)

Permeability (k; to flow)

Lithology (resistance against compaction) Grain size Grain orientation Grain sorting Degree of cementation

high ; high k

high ; low k

low ; high k

low ; low k

The plumbing of a reservoir ?

http://www.micromeritics.com/pore_cor.html

Why is this important ? Packing Porosity Definition Types Sandstones and Carbonates Permeability Definition Relationship to porosity Porosity Development with depth as a function of Porosity and scale Links und Literatur

What is pore space ? Framework: mechanically stable; Sedimented particles Pores: A network, mostly filled with gas or liquid, of open space

How is pore space quantified ? Fundamental: Concentration of solids, C C = VSolids / VTotal (%) Porosity is that part of the sedimentary rock not occupied by solids.

=1-C
Cement: Chemically precipitated minerals connecting grains therefore

(%)

= 1 - (VSolids / VTotal)

or

= (VTotal - VSolids ) / VTotal

Matrix: Mechanically or chemically instable particles (mostly of clay minerals, finegrained quartz, and calcite). Porosity is therefore the ratio of pore volume to total volume.

Porosity Ranges Sand and gravel Till Silt Clay Clastic sediments Limestone Basalt Tuff Pumice 20-50 % 10-20 % 35-50 % 33-60 % typically 3-30 % <1 to 30 % 1-12 % 14-40 % - 87 % 1-5 % ~0.1 %

What porosity types exist ?

1. Descriptive
In sandstones: Intergranular, Intragranular, Fracture, Dissolution, . In carbonates: Many

2. Engineering / Technical
effective / ineffective

Fractured crystalline rock Unfractured crystalline rock

3. Genetic
primary / secondary

http://geodynamics.wustl.edu/classes/hydrology/lectures/ch_02/ch_02.html

Descriptive porosity (in a sandstone) Fracture porosity Intergranular Effective Porosity eff Intragranular Total Porosity

Engineering Porosity

t = eff + ineff

contributes to fluid flow connected porosity intergranular or fracture

Dissolution porosity

Ineffective Porosity ineff

is in sandstones mostly
intragranular porosity

Genetische Porositt Primary porosity: Pore space remaining after deposition

Genetic Porosity: Primary Primary porosity in sandstones is mostly intergranular

Secondary porosity: Results of Dissolution of existing minerals (grains / cement) Sediment shrinkage Fracturing

Rotliegend Sandstone, Northern Germany

Genetic Porosity: Secondary

Secondary porosity Dissolved VRF, Feldspar

Secondary oversized pores: Dissolution of instable volcanic or metamorphic grains

Carboniferous Escarpment Fm., fluvio-eolian, Bolivia

Secondary, intergranular, probably ineffective porosity

Rotliegend Sandstone, Northern Germany

Secondary porosity Etched Feldspar

Mineralogy: Calcite / Aragonite / Dolomite

Carbonates
Facies: Platform, Reef, Ramp, Slope

http://www.creationresearch.org/vacrc/sem04.html

http://mgg.rsmas.miami.edu/groups/csl/trips/bahamas.htm

Secondary, intragranular, probably ineffective porosity

Sequence stratigraphy: Upbuilding, outbuilding, onlap, offlap

Particle size

Why the distinction ?

Sandstones Amount of primary porosity Types of primary porosity Pores sizes Pore shape Influence of diagenesis Importance of fracturing Visual estimate Core plugs -k correlation
Choquette and Pray, 1970

Types of porosity in carbonates Fabric-Selective

Interparticle Intraparticle Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework Intercrystal Moldic Primary

Carbonates 40-70% Interparticle and intraparticle f (diagenetic and biologic processes) greatly varied major! major feasible to impossible commonly inadequate varied or independent Breccia

25-40% interparticle f (particle size, sorting) negative of particles minor moderate minor moderate feasible or easy representative consistent

Not Fabric-Selective
Fracture Channel Vug Cavern

Secondary

Fabric-Selective or Not Boring Burrows Shrinkage

Choquette and Pray, 1970

Permeability: Definition is a measure of the ability of a fluid or a gas to cross a network of pores Why is this important ? Packing Porosity Definition Types Sandstones and Carbonates Permeability Definition Relationship to porosity Porosity Development with depth as a function of Porosity and scale Links und Literatur

measured in Darcy (D, oder mD) a measure of the degree of interconnectedness of pores Critical neumber and size of pore throats

How is permeability measured ? What influences the throughput of a fluid (Q) through a porous solid ?

Permeability - Darcys Law What influences the throughput of a fluid (Q) through a porous solid ?

Length Cross-sectional area Pressure difference Fluid viscosity

l A p

(-) (+) (+) (-)

Q= k

A l

Proportionality constant therefore

p Q~ A l p

Q~

A l

l A

l A

Permeability - Darcys Law How is permeability measured ? Q= k A l p

Permeability - Porosity How are permeability and porosity related ? (in a sandstone)
10000.00

1000.00

Fluid reservoir, known volume, graded scale

keep p und T constant

20

100.00

10

perm (mD)

5 10.00 2 1.00

Rate Q = V / t

Standardized geometry (A, l)

RT 1 RT 2 RT 3 RT 4 RT 5

> 3500 k/phi 450 - 3500 150 - 450 6.32 - 150 > 6.32

0.10

0.5 0.1 0.25

0.01 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15 porosity (v/v)

0.20

0.25

0.30

Permeability - Porosity How are permeability and porosity related ?

10000.00

Permeability - Porosity
How are phi and k related ?
1000.00 20

10 5

100.00

perm (mD)

RT 1 RT 2 RT 3 RT 4 RT 5 > 3500 k/phi 450 - 3500 150 - 450 6.32 - 150 > 6.32

10.00 2 1.00

Important for permeability prediction Empirical equations based on calibrated samples

Permeability (mD)

0.10

0.5 0.1 0.25

0.01 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15 porosity (v/v)

0.20

0.25

0.30

z.B. Carman-Kozeny equation K~

Pe Sv

Pe = effective Porosity Sv = surface (specific per unit volume of solid) ( in turn dependent on grain size) K= Pe3 5 Sv (1-Pe)2

Porosity (%)

Depth dependence
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Why is this important ? Packing Porosity Definition Types Sandstones and Carbonates Permeability Definition Relationship to porosity Porosity Development with depth as a function of Porosity and scale Links und Literatur
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

Depth dependence
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10

Depth dependence
15 20 25 30 35 40

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

2 3 4 5 6

chemical compaction: CaCO3, SiO2-cement, >500m

grain fracturing and bending, -1000m

mechanical shaking, -1000m

dehydration of smectite to illite (2000-3000m): -15% Vol. ! cement and mineral dissolution: carbonate, anhydrite, feldspars through CO2 ^

completely cemented 7 8

Mechanical compaction
Grain bending

Pressure effects

Mechanical breakage of plagioclase

Rotliegender Sandstein, Norddeutschland

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Leaching and Dissolution

0 5 10

Depth dependence
15 20 25 30 35 40

Fine-grained Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

2 3 4

Coasegrained

Leached tuffaceous (fine-grained volcanic) fragment

5 6 7 8

10

20

30

40

Depth dependence
0 RFs 1 5 10 clay minerals 15 20 25 30 35 40 1

Litharenite Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Mineralogical composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

2 3 4 5 6 7
Ar k (~ 5%
s ic s Lith ( >>

5%

/ km

2 3 Quartzarenite 4 5 6

/k

m ) c os i
Dickinson and Suczek (1979)

8 7 8 9 10

Qu ar

tzo se

ss

(<

5%

ss

/k m

11

Depth dependence and mineralogical composition

0 RFs 1 5 10 clay minerals 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 RFs

Depth dependence and mineralogical composition

5 10 clay minerals 15 20 25 30 35 40

Litharenite

Litharenite Quarzarenite

Folk; 1951, nach Blatt, 1980 Immature Submature Mature Little or no clay Grains well sorted Grains rounded Supermature

Quarzarenite
3
Craton Interior Qm 0 10 20 Transitional Continental 50 60 30 40
R ec

Composition and provenance

3
Q Craton Interior 20 Transitional Continental 60 50 40 30 20 70 Basement Uplift 80 lithic rec. 90 0 100 F 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
d

Much Clay Grains not well sorted

100 90 80 70 quartzose rec.

0 10

100 90 80 70

4 5 6 7
F Basement Uplift 80 90 100 0 10 20 30

4 5
50 40

Grains not rounded

30 40 Recycled Orogen

60

Removal of Clay

transitional rec. 60

50

Sorting of nonclay fraction

Rounding of grains

yc le

70

Dissected Arc

Dissected Arc Transitional Arc

30 20 Undissected Arc 80 90 10 0 100 L

6 7
0 Low Moderate High Extreme

Transitional Arc

10

40

50

60 70 80 Undissected Arc

90

100

Total input of modifying kinetic energy

Mechanical compaction and porosity

0 5 10

Depth dependence
15 20 25 30 35 40

High: 4C / 100m
1

2 3 4 5

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Mineralogical composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill Low: 1.3C / 100 m

6 Devonian greywacke, Taunus, Germany 7 8

12

Depth dependence
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10

Depth dependence
15 20 25 30 35 40

PermoTriassic Carboniferous

JurassicCretaceous Paleocene

1 Overpressure compartments due to high pore pressure

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Mineralogical composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill
Selley, 1978

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Mineralogical composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

Depth dependence
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Why is this important ?

1

Packing Porosity

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Oil fill prevents cementation

Definition Types Sandstones and Carbonates Permeability Definition Relationship to porosity Porosity Development with depth as a function of Porosity and scale Links und Literatur

Factors of porosity with depth: Maximum depth Mean grain size Mineralogical composition Temperature gradient Age Pressure Hydrocarbon fill

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How is permeability (k) and porosity () related ?

How is permeability (k) and porosity () related ?

Grain and Pore Scale

1.0 0.5 0.25 0.125 0.0625 0.044

Extremely well
40 0
42

20 0

10 0

25

50

10

Very Well
5

Sorting

40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26

2.5

(sub-) microscopic pore scale hand sample outcrop reservoir basinal scale

(m - mm) (mm - dm) (m - 100 m) (100 m - x km) (xx km - xxxx km)

Well
0 1.

Moderate Poor Very Poor Silt

0.5
0.2

Coarse

Medium

Fine Grain Size

Very Fine

After Beard and Weyl, 1973

Levels of Reservoir Heterogeneity

How is permeability (k) and porosity () related ?

Grain and Pore Scale max min

Kmax ? Kmin ?
1-10 cm 0.11m

1- 100 m 0.1-10 mm

http://www.creationresearch.org/vacrc/sem02.html

0.1-10 km 1-100

Hairy Illite RotliegendesProblem

Kaolinite

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How is permeability (k) and porosity () related ? Reservoir or outcrop scale Natural Reservoir Literature Layered Tank Simple Tank

Permeability - Porosity

Moore, Clyde H., 2001, Carbonate Reservoirs: Developmetns in Sedimentology, 55; Elsevier. Fchtbauer, Sedimente und Sedimentgesteine, p. 150-161. Blatt, H., 1990, Sedimentary Petrology (for diagenesis) Hutcheon, I., 1990, Aspects of diagenesis in coarse-grained silicilcastic rocks: in McIlreath, I., and D.W. Morrow, eds., Diagenesis: Geoscince Canada Reprint Series 4, p. 165-176. Allen, J.R.L., 1985, Principles of Physical Sedimentology (Chapter on Packing, p. 21-38) Barwis, McPherson, J.G., and Studlick, J.R.J., eds., Sandstone Petroleum Reservoirs: Springer (New York), 583 p. Wilson, M.D., 1994, Reservoir Quality Assessment and Prediction in Clastic Rocks: SEPM Short Course Notes 30, 432 p.

Permeabilitt - Porositt Links

Eine virtuelle Tour durch die Porenrume eines lreservoirs (Pilotstudie des US DOE) http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/pub/dds/dds-033/USGS_3D/ssx_txt/all.htm Porositt und Permeabilitt, angewandt auf die Erdlgeologie eines ganzen sedimentren Beckens: http://www.ags.gov.ab.ca/AGS_PUB/ATLAS_WWW/ATLAS.HTM AAPG webseite: http://www.aapg.org Handout for the Geol 463 class at the University of Saskatoon (where is that ? Ask your Instructor); a few pages of good text; some figures : http://www.usask.ca/geology/classes/geol463/46306b.pdf Debra K. Higley, Michael P. Pantea, and Roger M. Slatt, 1997, 3-D Reservoir Characterization of the House Creek Oil Field, Powder River Basin, Wyoming: U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DIGITAL DATA SERIES DDS-33; Website, http://pubs.usgs.gov/dds/1997/dds033/USGS_3D/ssx_txt/all.htm, V1.00 (access Dec. 11, 2002)

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