Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Basic units
This is a reference list with notes of all SI and derived units in physics. The notes provide a brief explanation of some of the more confusing elements, but be warned that the full explanation could take many pages, and may be explained elsewhere on this website. Physics has only 5 base units. (Plus the SI units Mole and Candela, but these are rarely used in Physics.) Name Name Length Abbreviation (Symbol) Abbreviation (Symbol) l, x (for distances) Standard Unit Standard Unit Meter (m) Notes Notes A meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacumm in of a second (in physics it is customary to use metric measurements although the basic principles apply if you to use feet instead of meters) Mass m, M (when used with measurements in meters) t T Kilogram (kg) A kilogram is defined as the weight of a specific platinum-iridium cylinder

Time Temparature

Second (s) Kelvin (K)

Seconds are defined as 9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation from a cesium atom A degree kelvin is defined as of the distance between absolute 0 and the triple point of water An ampere is the amount of charge (C) passing through a surface per second, and is defined as the current which produces a force of newtons per meter of length between two infinitely long, perfectly straight and parallel conductors with an infinitely small cross section separated by one meter in a vacuum..

Electric Current

Ampere (A)

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Principle of linear movement and graph

We will study two types of graphs: displacement-time and velocity-time. We will then learn how to obtain a velocity versus time graph from the displacement-time graph (also the reverse process). This presentation can be adapted to any grade level between 5 and 12 with some modifications. It presents the most fundamental concept of physics, the linear motion with minimal mathematics, while providing a test-ground for the skills developed in mathematics classes. The goal of this exercise is to introduce physics early on, with the hope that, it will reinforce some of the mathematical concepts learned--while encouraging the teachers to include at least one unit of description of motion. Arithmetic skills practiced in this exercise: Number line, concept of direction on the number line (coordinate frame is the fancy name), slope, finding areas of such geometric shapes like triangle or rectangle, graphing, tables (charts).

Displacement: Position of an object (what you would read from the meter stick next to which a toy car is in motion on a straight line), as it moves, changes with time. This position change relative to an origin (a reference point) is called DISPLACEMENT. Displacement is a vector quantity (means it has duration as well as size), whereas distance covered is a scalar quantity (it has no direction, but has size). Examples B

Car-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Car-1

. 1)

A denotes the displacement of Car-1 B denotes the displacement of Car-2

Both cars are at the same distance from origin, however they have different displacements. 2) Lets consider a coordinate frame (two meter sticks placed mutually perpendicular), which measures the displacements in horizontal (x) as well as vertical (y) directions.

Path of the car

y (m)

A denotes the position of the car at this particular time; B denotes the position of the car at a later time.

4 3 2 1

A B
x (m)

x,y A: (2,3) B: (4,2)

`1

During the time the cars displacement changed from A to B, its x-displacement changed from 2 to 4, its y-displacement changed from 3 to 2.

Y2-Y1=Rise Y

Y1 Graphs Slope of a straight line = Rise/Run You can calculate the slope by choosing any

two points on the line [such as A (X1,Y1) and

X2-X1=Run

B (X2, Y2)].
X1 X2 X

Slope =

y2-y1 x2-x1

Note that the application of slope in describing the velocity is accomplished by taking the horizontal axis as time(t) and the vertical axis(y) as displacement x. x2-x1 t2-t1

Velocity V =

velocity is the slope of x-t graph

Lets record the displacements of a toy car as it moves in one dimension [it can go the positive x-direction (to the right) or in the negative x-direction (to the left). Time (t) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 Displacement (cm) 0 4.1 7.9 12.1 16.0 16.0 16.0 18.0 20.1 21.9 24.0 22.1 20.0 0

cm

Meter stick

20 t (sec) x (cm) 15 30

30

50

60

Note that the motion on x-t graph is described by a set of straight lines. We analyze the motion by breaking the whole graph into segments, each of which describes the motion between the break point (20 sec, 30 sec, 50 sec, 60 sec). Realistically speaking, the lines would smoothly join to each other in an actual experiment. Velocity = (x2-x1)/(t2-t1) t2-t1 (s) 20-0 30-20=10 50-30=20 60-50=10 displacement (cm) 16-0 16-16 = 0 24-16 = 8 20-24 = -4 velocity (cm/s) 16/20 = 0.8 0/10 = 0 8/20 = 0.4 -4/10 = -0.4

Now we are ready to plot (or graph) v t.

10 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.6 -0.2 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 V(cm/s)

20

30

40

50

60

70

At the end points (20,30,50,60 seconds) velocity is not defined! Because the lines on x-t graph break , slope is undefined.

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Theory of vector
Vectors have magnitude and direction. The magnitude of is written | | v . Position, displacement, velocity, acceleration and force are examples of vector quantities. Vectors have the following properties: 1. Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. 2. Vectors must have the same units in order for them to be added or subtracted. 3. The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but opposite direction. 4. Subtraction of a vector is defined by adding a negative vector: 5. Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar results in a vector for which (a) only the magnitude changes if the scalar is positive (b) the magnitude changes and the direction is reversed if the scalar is negative. 6. The projections of a vector along the axes of a rectangular co-ordinate system are called the components of the vector. The components of a vector completely define the vector. Figure 3.1: Projections of a vector in 2-D. = + ()

cos

sin

Ax = Acos

Ay = Asin We can invert these equations to find A and as functions of Ax and Ay . By Pythagoras we have,

A= and from the diagram, tan =

= . 7.

To add vectors by components: = + + +... (a) Find the components of all vectors to be added. (b) Add all x components to get Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx + ... Add all y components to get Ry = Ay + By + Cy +... (c) Then | | = = .

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Theory of density
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. Density = Mass / Volume The SI unit of density is kilogram/meter3 (kg/m3). Another commonly used unit (CGS system) for density is g/cm3. 1 kg/m3 = 1000 g/m3 = (1000/1000000) g/cm3 = 1/1000 g/cm3. So, divide by 1000 to convert from kg/m3 to g/cm3, and multiply by 1000 to convert from g/cm3 to kg/m3. Density of water is about 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3 at room temperature. Density of sea water (about 1.04 g/cm3 or 1040 kg/m3) is more than that of fresh water because of the salt dissolved in it. Density of air is about 0.001 g/cm3 or 1 kg/m3 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Approximate densities (in g/cm3) of some substances are given below.

Tungsten (19.4) Mercury (13.6) Lead (11.4) Aluminum (2.7) Glass (2.2 to 2.7) Cork (0.05 to 0.1)

When a body floats, it displaces an amount of fluid equal to its own weight.

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Archimedess principle

Archimedes' principle is a law that explains buoyancy or up thrust. It states that When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid it experiences an up thrust, or an apparent loss in weight, which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. According to a tale, Archimedes discovered this law while taking a bath. After making this discovery, he is said to have leapt out of his bathtub and ran through the streets of Syracuse naked shouting "Eureka! An object experiences up thrust due to the fact that the pressure exerted by a fluid on the lower surface of a body being greater than that on the top surface, since pressure increases with depth. Pressure, p is given by p = hg, where: h is the height of the fluid column (rho) is the density of the fluid g is the acceleration due to gravity

Let us confirm this principle theoretically. On the figure on the left, a solid block is immersed completely in a fluid with density . The difference in the force exerted, d on the top and bottom surfaces with area a is due to the difference in pressure, given by d = h2ag h1ag = (h2 h1)ag But (h2 h1) is the height of the wooden block. So, (h2 h1)a is the volume of the solid block, V. d = Vg Up thrust = Vg In any situation, the volume of fluid displaced (or the volume of the object submerged) is considered to calculate up thrust, because (h2 h1) is the height of the solid block only when it is completely immersed. Furthermore, the pressure difference of the fluid acts only on the immersed part of an object. Now, moving back to Vg. Since V is the volume of fluid displaced, then the product of V, and g is the weight of the fluid displaced. So, we can say that Up thrust = Weight of the fluid displaced Compare this conclusion with the statement above summarising Archimedes' principle. Are

they the same? Well, not totally. The apparent loss in weight was not mentioned in my explanation.

In the figure on the left, there are arrows on the top and bottom of the solid block. The downward arrow represents the weight of the block pulling it downwards and the upward arrow represents the up thrust pushing it upwards. If one were to measure the weight of the solid block when it is immersed in the fluid, he will find that the weight of the block is less than that in air. There is a so-called apparent loss in weight, because the buoyant force has supported some of the blocks weight. Weight in air Up thrust = Weight in fluid Up thrust = Weight in air - Weight in fluid Up thrust = Apparent loss in weight Objects Floating Freely When an object is floating freely (i.e. neither sinking nor moving vertically upwards), then the up thrust must be fully supporting the objects weight. We can say Up thrust on body = Weight of floating body By Archimedes principle, Up thrust on body = Weight of fluid displaced Weight of floating body = Weight of fluid displaced

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Gas law
The behavior of all gases is affected by three factors: the temperature of the gas, the pressure of the gas, and the volume of the gas. The relationships among these three factors have been defined in what are called the Gas Laws. Five of these, Dalton's Law, Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, Henry's Law, and the General Gas Law, are of special importance to the diver.

Let P, V, and T respectively denote absolute pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of the gas. Subscript indexes ( 1, 2, etc. ) are used to distinguish values at different moments such as initial, final, etc. Other special symbols are defined further. Dalton's Law The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that would be exerted by each of the gases if it alone were present and occupied the total volume. PTotal= Ppl+ Pp2+ ... + Ppn Pp denotes the partial pressure of the particular gas component In a gas mixture, the portion of the total pressure contributed by a single gas is called the partial pressure of that gas. Boyle's Law At constant temperature, the volume of a gas varies inversely with absolute pressure, while the density of a gas varies directly with absolute pressure. P1V1 = P2V2 = constant at constant T Boyle's Law is important to divers because it relates changes in the volume of a gas to changes in pressure (depth) and defines the relationship between pressure and volume in breathing gas supplies. Charles' Law At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas varies directly with absolute temperature. For any gas at a constant volume, the pressure of a gas varies directly with absolute temperature. P1 = T1 V 1 = T1 P2 T2 V2 T2 at constant at constant volume pressure Temperature significantly affects the pressure and volume of a gas; it is therefore essential to have a method of including this effect in calculations of pressure and volume. To a diver, knowing the effect of temperature is essential, because the temperature of the water deep in the oceans or in lakes is often significantly different from the temperature of the air at the surface. Henry's Law The amount of any given gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature is a function of the partial pressure of the gas that is in contact with the liquid and the solubility coefficient of the gas in the particular liquid. _Vg_ = P1 VL . Vg volume of the gas dissolved at STP (standard T and P) VL volume of the liquid Bunson solubility coefficient at specified temperatures P1 partial pressure in atmospheres of the gas above the liquidThis law simply states that, because a large percentage of the human body is water, more gas will dissolve into the blood and body tissues as depth increases, until the point of saturation is reached. Depending on the gas, saturation takes from 8 to 24 hours or longer. As long as the pressure is maintained, and regardless of the quantity of gas that has dissolved into the diver's tissues, the gas will remain in solution. A simple example of the way in which Henry's Law works can be seen when a bottle of carbonated soda is opened. Opening the container releases the pressure suddenly, causing the

gases in solution to come out of solution and to form bubbles. This is similar to what happens in a diver's tissues if the prescribed ascent rate is exceeded. The significance of this phenomenon for divers is developed fully in the discussion of decompression. The General Gas Law Boyle's and Charles' laws can be conveniently combined into what is known as the General Gas Law, expressed mathematically as follows: P1V1 T1
=

Gas Flow There are occasions when it is desirable to determine the rate at which gas flows through orifices, hoses, and other limiting enclosures. This can be approximated for a given gas by employing Poiseuille's equation for gases, which is expressed mathematically as: Pr4 V2 =
8L

P2V2 T2

V P r L

gas flow, in cm3 sec-1 pressure gradient between 2 ends of tube, in dynes cm-1 radius of tube, in cm length of tube, in cm

viscosity, in poiseThis equation can be used only in relatively simple systems that involve laminar flow and do not include a number of valves or restrictions. For practical applications, the diver should note that, as resistance increases, flow decreases in direct proportion. Therefore, if the length of a line is increased, the pressure must be increased to maintain the same flow. Nomograms for flow resistance through diving hoses can be found in Volume 2 of the US Navy Diving Manual (1987).
Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Bernoulli Principles

Bernoulli's Principle is the principle that allows wings to produce lift and planes and helicopters to fly. There are many factors that can affect the lift produced under this principle, but in order to fully understand how and why things can effect flight one must understand how Bernoulli's principle works. Bernoulli's principle works on the idea that as a wing passes through the air the its shape make the air travel more over the top of the wing than beneath it. This creates a higher pressure are beneath the wing than above it. The pressure difference cause the wing to push upwards and lift is created. There are several things that affect the amount of lift created. The first is speed, the faster the wing moves through the air the more air is forced over and under the wing, therefore the more lift is created. Another thing that affects the amount of lift created is the density of the air. The denser the air is the more lift is produced. This is why planes climb better in the winter, the colder air is denser. The final thing that can change the amount of lift created by the wing is the shape of the wing. Certain wings produce more lift.

Lift To maintain equilibrium in a straight and level flight, pilots must monitor the aircraft's speed and pitch angle. Those variables along with other factors are used in a formula to determine an aircraft's lift. Lift= (1/2) (air density) (velocity expressed in feet squared) (aircraft's wing area)(coefficient of lift) Air density changes with altitude. Such densities can be found in the I.C.A.O. standard atmosphere table. The coefficient of lift which varies with the aircraft's type of airfoil and pitch angle uses the pitch angle velocity relationship curve to determine the aircraft's coefficient of lift.

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Thermodynamics
The information you need to address common problems in thermodynamics, the realm of physics relating to energy in the form of heat and how that energy alters physical properties of matter, such as temperature, pressure, and density. The field of thermodynamics deals with systems that are able to transfer thermal energy into at least one other form of energy (mechanical, electrical, etc.) or into work. The laws of thermodynamics were developed over the years as some of the most fundamental rules which are followed when a thermodynamic system goes through some sort of energy change. Development of the Laws of Thermodynamics The study of heat as a distinct form of energy began in approximately 1798 when Sir Benjamin Thompson (also known as Count Rumford), a British military engineer, noticed that heat could be generated in proportion to the amount of work done .a fundamental concept which would ultimately become a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics. French physicist Sadi Carnot first formulated a basic principle of thermodynamics in 1824. The principles which Carnot used to define his Carnot cycle heat engine would ultimately translate into the second law of thermodynamics by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, who is also frequently credited with the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics.

Part of the reason for the rapid development of thermodynamics in the nineteenth century was the need to develop efficient steam engines during the industrial revolution. Kinetic Theory & the Laws of Thermodynamics The laws of thermodynamics do not particularly concern themselves with the specific how and why of heat transfer, which makes sense for laws that were formulated before atomic theory was fully adopted. They deal with the sum total of energy and heat transitions within a system, and do not take into account the specific nature of heat transference on the atomic or molecular level. Major Types of Thermodynamic Processes There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that happen frequently enough (and in practical situations) that they are commonly treated in the study of thermodynamics. Each has a unique trait that identifies it, and which is useful in analyzing the energy and work changes related to the process.

Adiabatic process - a process with no heat transfer into or out of the system. Isochoric process - a process with no change in volume, in which case the system does no work. Isobaric process - a process with no change in pressure. Isothermal process - a process with no change in temperature.

It is possible to have multiple processes within a single process. The most obvious example would be a case where volume and pressure change, resulting in no change in temperature or heat transfer - such a process would be both adiabatic & isothermal. The First Law of Thermodynamics In mathematical terms, the first law of thermodynamics can be written as: Delta-U = Q - W or Q = delta-U + W where

delta-U = system's change in internal energy Q = heat transferred into or out of the system. W = work done by or on the system.

When analyzing one of the special thermodynamic processes described above, we frequently (though not always) find a very fortunate outcome - one of these quantities reduces to zero! For example, in an adiabatic process there is no heat transfer, so Q = 0, resulting in a very straightforward relationship between the internal energy and work: delta-Q = -W. See the individual definitions of these processes for more specific details about their unique properties. Reversible Processes Most thermodynamic processes proceed naturally from one direction to another. In other words, they have a preferred direction.

Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one. Gases expand to fill a room, but will not spontaneously contract to fill a smaller space. Mechanical energy can be converted completely to heat, but it's virtually impossible to convert heat completely into mechanical energy. However, some systems do go through a reversible process. Generally, this happens when the system is always close to thermal equilibrium, both inside the system itself and with any surroundings. In this case, infinitesimal changes to the conditions of the system can cause the process to go the other way. As such, a reversible process is also known as an equilibrium process. Example 1: Two metals (A & B) are in thermal contact and thermal equilibrium. Metal A is heated an infinitesimal amount, so that heat flows from it to metal B. This process can be reversed by cooling A an infinitesimal amount, at which point heat will begin to flow from B to A until they are once again in thermal equilibrium. Example 2: A gas is expanded slowly and adiabatically in a reversible process. By increasing the pressure by an infinitesimal amount, the same gas can compress slowly and adiabatically back to the initial state. It should be noted that these are somewhat idealized examples. For practical purposes, a system that is in thermal equilibrium ceases to be in thermal equilibrium once one of these changes is introduced ... thus the process is not actually completely reversible. It is an idealized model of how such a situation would take place, though with careful control of experimental conditions a process can be carried out which is extremely close to being fully reversible. Irreversible Processes & the Second Law of Thermodynamics Most processes, of course, are irreversible processes (or no equilibrium processes). Using the friction of your brakes do work on your car is an irreversible process. Letting air from a balloon release into the room is an irreversible process. Placing a block of ice onto a hot cement walkway is an irreversible process. Overall, these irreversible processes are a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics, which is frequently defined in terms of the entropy, or disorder, of a system. There are several ways to phrase the second law of thermodynamics, but basically it places a limitation on how efficient any transfer of heat can be. According to the second law of thermodynamics, some heat will always be lost in the process, which is why it is not possible to have a completely reversible process in the real world. Heat Engines, Heat Pumps, & Other Devices We call any device which transforms heat partly into work or mechanical energy a heat engine. A heat engine does this by transferring heat from one place to another, getting some work done along the way.

Using thermodynamics, it is possible to analyze the thermal efficiency of a heat engine, and that is a topic covered in most introductory physics courses. Here are some heat engines which are frequently analyzed in physics courses:

Internal-Combustion Engine - A fuel-powered engine such as those used in automobiles. The "Otto cycle" defines the thermodynamic process of a regular gasoline engine. The "Diesel cycle" refers to Diesel powered engines. Refrigerator - A heat engine in reverse, the refrigerator takes heat from a cold place (inside the refrigerator) and transfers it to a warm place (outside the refrigerator). Heat Pump - A heat pump is a type of heat engine, similar to a refrigerator, which is used to heat buildings by cooling the outside air.

Name: ______________________________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________ Venue: ____________

Harmonic motion
I. Definition A. Simple harmonic motion occurs when the force F acting on an object is directly proportional to the displacement x of the object, but in the opposite direction. B. Mathematical statement F = -kx C. The force is called a restoring force because it always acts on the object to return it to its equilibrium position. II. Descriptive terms A. The amplitude A is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position. B. The period T is the time for one complete oscillation. After time T the motion repeats itself. In general x(t) = x (t + T) C. The frequency f is the number of oscillations per second. The frequency equals the reciprocal of the period. f = 1/T. D. Although simple harmonic motion is not motion in a circle, it is convenient to use angular frequency by defining w = 2pf = 2p/T.
III. Example of Simple Harmonic Motion - mass at end of spring

A spring that obeys Hooke's Law is an example of simple harmonic motion. If you displace the spring a maximum amount x = A, the amplitude, release it from rest (vo = 0), photograph and plot the position as function of time, you find, as shown in Fig. 3a below that x(t) = A cos (2pt/T), where T, the period is the time for one complete oscillation.

To save time I shall write: x(t) = A cos (2pt/T), as x(t) = A cos wt then, v(t) = dx/dt = - wA sin wt, as shown in Fig. 3b below:

Note: Maximum value of v = wA because maximum value of sine =1. a(t) = dv/dt = - w2 (A cos wt), as shown in Fig. 3c below:

Note: Maximum value of a = w2A because maximum value of cosine =1. a(t) = -[w2] x(t) (Equation 2) In general, Fnet = ma

For a mass attached to a spring, Substituting a from Equation 2 Thus,

-kx = ma -kx = m[-w2] x (k/m) = w2 w = [k/m]1/2 f = (1/2p)[k/m]1/2 T = (2p) [m/k]1/2

IV.

Use Fig. 3 above to: A. Write x(t) for this graph. First find A, T, f, and w. From Fig. 3a, you see that the maximum value of x or the amplitude A is 0.20 m. The graph repeats itself after one period = T = 2 s, f = 1/T = 0.5 s-1 and w = 2pf = p s-1. In general, x(t) = A cos wt. For this case x(t) = 0.20 m cos p s-1 t B. Find a general expression for the velocity, apply it to this case, and check with Fig. 3b to see if it is correct. What is the maximum value of the velocity for Fig. 3b? Find x when v = -0.1 p m/s. Since x(t) = 0.20 m cos p s-1 t, dx/dt = v(t) = -(0.20p m/s) sin p s-1 t. In Fig. 3b we see that v as a function of t is a negative sine curve with a maximum value of 0.2(3.14) m/s. v = -0.1p m/s = -(0.20p m/s) sin p s-1t. Or 1/2 = sin p s-1t. The sine of an angle is 1/2 when the angle is 300 or p/6 radians. So p/6 = p s-1t or t = 1/6 s. x(1/3 s) = 0.20 m cos p/6= 0.173 cm. From Fig. 3a and 3b, you can see that these are the correct values. C. Find a general expression for the acceleration, apply it to this case, and check with Fig. 3c to see if it is correct. What is the maximum value of the acceleration for Fig. 3b? Since v(t) = -(0.20p m/s) sin p s-1 t, dv/dt = a(t) = -(0.20p2 m/s) cos p s-1 t. In Fig. 3c we see that v as a function of t is a negative cosine curve with a maximum value of 0.2(3.14)2 m/s2 approximately equal to 2 m/s2. V. Energy Considerations for Simple Harmonic Motion
A. For all cases of simple harmonic motion, that is, when the force is directly

proportional to the displacement of the object and in the opposite direction F = -kx, where k is the proportionality constant, the force is a conservative force and the potential energy function for this force is U = 1/2 kx2.
B. The total energy E equals the sum of the potential energy U and the kinetic

energy K: E = U + K

or E = 1/2 kx 2 + 1/2 mv2

C. When the object has a maximum displacement x = A, its velocity v is zero. E

= 1/2 kA2 + 0 Since E is a constant, E always equals 1/2 kA2 for all times and displacements. occurs at the equilibrium position.

D. When x = 0, U = 0 and E = 0 + 1/2 mv2. The maximum velocity of the object

E. On the next page in Fig. 4, I have drawn the potential energy curve for the simple harmonic motion shown in Fig. 3. Find the spring constant k, the mass m of the object and check out the period of the motion.
F. As you can see from Fig. 4, E is approximately equal to 0.20 J. In reality it is

equal to 1/2(p2 N/m)(0.20 m)2 = 0.02p2 J = 1/2 kA2. Since A = 0.20 m, k = p2 N/m. The maximum value of the velocity occurs at the equilibrium position. We found before that Vmax = wA = p s-1 (0.2 m) = 0.2p m/s. vmax2 = 0.04p2 m2/s2. At the equilibrium position, the kinetic energy equals the total energy =1/2(p2 N/m)(0.20 m)2 = 1/2 mvmax2 = 1/2 m 0.04p2 m2/s2 (1 N-s2/m) = 1 kg = m.
Name: ______________________________ Venue: ____________ Date: ______________ Time: ____________

Light
Light is simply a name for a range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye. What is electromagnetic radiation, then? Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature as both particles and waves. One way to look at it is as changing electric and magnetic fields which propagate through space, forming an electromagnetic wave. [Illustration] This wave has amplitude, which is the brightness of the light, wavelength, which is the colour of the light, and an angle at which it is vibrating, called polarization. This was the classical interpretation, crystallized in Maxwell's Equations, which held sway until Planck, Einstein and others came along with quantum theory. In terms of the modern quantum theory, electromagnetic radiation consists of particles called photons, which are packets ("quanta") of energy which move at the speed of light. In this particle view of light, the brightness of the light is the number of photons, the colour of the light is the energy contained in each photon, and four numbers (X, Y, Z and T) are the polarization. Which interpretation is correct? Both of them, actually. It turns out electromagnetic radiation can have both wave-like and particle-like properties as demonstrated in experiments such as the dual slit experiment. In this exploration of light, we will primarily take the wave viewpoint as it is a more useful description of the everyday properties of light, but keep in mind that both viewpoints are valid, and sometimes we will use the quantum viewpoint too.

On to the numbers! Light ranges from wavelengths of 7x10-5 cm (red) to 4x10-5 cm (violet) and (like all electromagnetic radiation) travels at the speed of light, 299,792,458 meters per second or 186,282 miles per second. (Interesting fact: the speed of light is actually defined to be 299,792,458 meters per second and scientists combine this with the definition of a second to create the definition of a meter! As stated at the 17th General conference on weights and Measures, "The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.") The frequency (number of wavelengths per second) of a light wave may be calculated using the equation c= ln where l is the wavelength, n is the frequency and c is the speed of light. In quantum theory, a photon has energy equal, where h is Plank's constant and n is the frequency of the light in classical theory.