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Budapest University of Technology and Economics Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

SHALLOW LAKE HYDRODYNAMICS Theory, measurement and numerical model applications A Hungarian-Finnish experience

Prof. Jnos Jzsa

Budapest, 2006

SHALLOW LAKE HYDRODYNAMICS Theory, measurement and numerical model applications Author: Jnos Jzsa Budapest, 2006 Mundus-Euroaquae lecture notes Keywords Shallow lake, air-water interaction, wind-induced circulation, water exchange, numerical modelling, field measurements Contact details Budapest University of Technology and Economics Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering Megyetem rkp 3., K mf. 4. H-1111 Budapest HUNGARY Tel: +36 1 463-1164 Web: www.vit.bme.hu E-mail: jozsa@vit.bme.hu Fax: +36 1 463-1879

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Table of contents
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Characteristic water motions in shallow lakes ................................................................. 1 1.2 On the role of wind-induced circulatory flows ................................................................ 2 1.3 The Hungarian shallow lakes as case studies ................................................................... 2 1.4 Main research tools........................................................................................................... 3 1.4.1 Field measurements .................................................................................................. 3 1.4.2 Analysis of the field data.......................................................................................... 4 1.4.3 Mathematical description and numerical modelling of the processes...................... 4 1.4.4 Selecting prevailing events....................................................................................... 4 1.4.5 Model calibration and verification for prevailing events ......................................... 4 1.4.6 Modelling experiments............................................................................................. 4 1.5 Outline of the present Notes ............................................................................................. 4 2 Air-water interaction in lake environment.............................................................................. 5 2.1 Near-surface wind and wind shear stress conditions........................................................ 6 2.1.1 Effect of the lake size, surrounding topography and land roughness....................... 6 2.1.2 Roughness conditions on the lake surface................................................................ 6 2.1.3 Near-surface wind profile and the aerodynamic drag .............................................. 7 2.1.4 Momentum exchange at the surface: the wind shear stress...................................... 8 2.1.5 Effect of an abrupt change in surface roughness: development of the internal boundary layer ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Coupled modelling of the internal boundary layer and the surface wind shear stress ..... 9 3 Mathematical description of wind-induced lake flows......................................................... 13 3.1 Three-dimensional governing equations ........................................................................ 13 3.2 Identifying the shallow water conditions ....................................................................... 15 3.3 Depth-integrated approach ............................................................................................. 16 3.4 Three-dimensional approach with analytical solution of the velocity profile................ 17 3.5 Governing equation in vorticity form............................................................................. 17 3.6 Analysis of the vorticity balance .................................................................................... 18 3.6.1 Vorticity advection and dispersion......................................................................... 18 3.6.2 Vorticity sources..................................................................................................... 18 3.6.3 Vorticity sinks ........................................................................................................ 19 3.6.4 Relative weight of the source terms and their role in inducing circulations .......... 19 3.7 Depth-integrated governing equations ........................................................................... 19 3.8 Transport modelling of water exchange processes......................................................... 20 3.8.1 Water exchange as water mass advection-dispersion............................................. 20 3.8.2 Water exchange characterised as the evolution of the mean residence time field 20 3.8.3 Residence time field decomposition into contributions of sub-domains................ 20 3.8.4 Applied numerical transport model ........................................................................ 21 4 Field measurement of wind-induced flows........................................................................... 21 4.1 Applied tools, measuring and deploying principles ....................................................... 21 4.2 Data processing and analysis.......................................................................................... 24 4.2.1 Vector-time series representation ........................................................................... 24 4.2.2 Directional statistics ............................................................................................... 24 4.2.3 Digital filtering of the time series........................................................................... 24 5 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Fert (Neusiedl) ........................................................... 25 i

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

5.1 Progress in field measurements ...................................................................................... 26 5.2 Wind conditions.............................................................................................................. 27 5.2.1 Prevailing winds ..................................................................................................... 27 5.2.2 Investigation of the near-surface wind conditions in a bay.................................... 27 5.2.3 Calibration and verification of the surface wind shear stress model...................... 28 5.3 Wind-induced flows ....................................................................................................... 30 5.3.1 Prevailing circulation patterns in the study bay ..................................................... 30 5.3.2 Model calibration for prevailing circulation patterns............................................. 36 5.3.3 Hydrodynamic exploration of the Northern pelagic area ....................................... 39 5.3.4 Water exchange mechanisms as a combination of the seiche and circulations...... 44 Model investigations in a fictitious sample lake................................................................... 44 6.1 Aims of the investigations .............................................................................................. 44 6.2 Joint effect of the depth and wind shear stress distribution............................................ 44 6.3 Effect of emergent vegetation cover............................................................................... 50 6.4 Effect of large scale dredging......................................................................................... 51 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Velence......................................................................... 53 7.1 Local wind conditions .................................................................................................... 53 7.2 Analysis of the measurements ........................................................................................ 54 7.3 Flow model calibration and verification......................................................................... 60 Wind-induced circulations in the Western part of Lake Balaton ......................................... 64 8.1 Field measurement campaigns in the late nineties ......................................................... 65 8.2 Wind conditions in the study region............................................................................... 68 8.3 Flow conditions .............................................................................................................. 68 8.3.1 Analysis of the simultaneous wind and flow measurements.................................. 69 8.3.2 Modelling the prevailing circulation patterns......................................................... 75 Suspended sediment transport modelling in lake Balaton.................................................... 77

10 On the applicability for other shallow lakes ......................................................................... 80 11 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 80 12 References and relevant literature ........................................................................................ 80

ii

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

1 Introduction
Shallow lakes have recently received enhanced attention all over the world. Their unique value and multi-purpose utility have been more and more recognised which have led then to misusing a number of them, thus worsening their ecological state even to an alarming extent at places. Furthermore, the recent changes in the global climate or, at least the fact that extremes seem to grow, changed also the boundary conditions for these vulnerable water bodies. In spite if this, lake studies are still quite moderately financed compared to maritime research, and often focuse on deep lakes, only. When trying to adapt the result obtained in deep water lake or shallow coastal seas, one has to cope, nevertheless, with a number of problems due to the differences in the prevailing time and space scales found in shallow lakes. In fact, shallow lakes have got their own features and need special research and management methodology. In Hungary, situated in the middle of the rather flat Carpathian Basin with no direct access to the sea, besides the large rivers shallow lakes, first of all Lake Balaton, the largest shallow lake in Central-Europe, and Lake Fert (Neusiedler See in German) the West-most large steppe lake in the continent are far the most important surface waters. In addition to the traditional hydro-meteorological observations, hydrodynamic explorations started as early as the sixties, first investigating the wind-induced seiche motion and looking for possible reasons for the unfavourable silting up in some parts of the lakes. Field measurement campaigns carried out in the sixties, seventies and early eighties provided significant results except for the water currents on which data with only very limited value could be collected due to lacking instrumentation. This was an obstacle for a while also for validating numerical flow models developed since the mid-eighties. Parallel to this in Finland, the country of thousand lakes, in the late seventies recording current meters, meant originally for sea conditions, were successfully applied also in shallow lakes, which gave a significant impulse to the lake hydrodynamics research there, including its multidimensional numerical modelling. In fact, good quality calibration data proved vital for reliable model parameterisation. In order to combine shallow lake research efforts of the two countries a bilateral cooperation framework was established in the mid-eighties, leading to a number of fruitful joint research programs and methodological development in both countries. The present Notes attempt to give an insight into the achievements in theory, measurements and numerical modelling related to the Hungarian lakes studied in the framework of the cooperation, discussing more in details the ones with applicability for other shallow lake hydrodynamic, sediment transport and water quality studies.

1.1 Characteristic water motions in shallow lakes


Except rather few cases, water motions in shallow lakes are primarily induced by the wind. Part of the momentum of the wind over the lake is transferred into the water at the lake surface generating then e.g. waves, turbulence, drift currents, Langmuir circulations, as well as large scale circulations and seiche. This momentum flux drives then indirectly the exchange processes at the lake bottom, mixing in the water body, and the interaction between the littoral and the pelagic zones. In fact, in general the more shallow, the more efficient the influence of the external surface forces on the bottom. As one of the main features of shallow lakes, surface waves generated even by moderate winds can induce shear stress at the bottom and stir up the uppermost sediment layer of the lake bed (see e.g. Sheng and Lick, 1979; Dyer, 1986; Luettich et al., 1990; Rkczi and Jzsa, 1999). While kept in resuspension by turbulence, particles can be transported by advective currents over large distances and settle if local conditions promote 1

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

it. As another consequence of shallowness, wind-induced turbulence can easily destroy temperature stratification thus making the lake homogenous.

1.2 On the role of wind-induced circulatory flows


The largest scale wind-induced hydrodynamic processes are the oscillatory (seiche) and circulatory currents. Oscillations in themselves usually would not result in significant net exchange, but when accompanied wind-induced circulations, their combined influence is significantly enhanced. While seiche can be generated either by the wind or horizontal atmospheric pressure gradient, circulations are induced primarily by the surface wind shear stress field and shaped by various factors. Circulations, though always three-dimensional in the most general sense, very often show organised horizontal pattern consisting of large-scale gyres. In fact, circulation needs rotation sources to be generated and maintained. Such sources can be originated e.g. from bottom slopes relative to the depth (Simons, 1980), irregular wind field (Jzsa et al., 1990; Jzsa et al., 1998; Jinxiu et al, 1999), irregular lake surface exposure to the wind, due to lakeshore forest (Podsetchine and Schernewski, 1999), emergent littoral vegetation (Sarkkula et al., 1991; Jzsa et al., 1999) or indirectly from the earth rotation itself (Simons, 1980). Windstorm with 10-15 m/s speed can easily generate lake-wide circulations with 10-15 cm/s flow velocity which if sustained e.g. for half day may result in significant, even 5-6 km net advection. In most shallow lakes it is comparable with their horizontal size, consequently such circulations with sufficient duration and stability can often induce lake-wide exchange of water masses and all the substances carried by them. Though hydrodynamics is challenging in itself, it has been also recognised that the description of sediment transport, morphological changes, water quality or even ecological processes have to be built on sound lake circulation bases. In order to do that it is essential to explore the most important features of the external forces driving the hydrodynamics.

1.3 The Hungarian shallow lakes as case studies


The protection and restoration of the large shallow lakes has become one of the main tasks in water management in Hungary (Fig. 1). As was mentioned earlier, the largest lakes have long been investigated both in domestic and international framework. As far the most important, Lake Balaton, nearly 80 km long, 1-10 km wide and 3 m deep on average, is one of the most visited, in summer time often overcrowded lake in Europe, offering a great variety of leisure time activities. High nutrient supply from stirred up sediment grains as internal load may, however, result fro time to time in poor water quality. One of the ways to improve the conditions is to remove the upper-most polluted bed layer by dredging. Detailed information on the hydro- and sediment dynamics as the lake response to the prevailing wind is most essential when planning and performing such a dredging. Lake Fert, the second largest, extremely shallow lake with its 1.5 m mean depth and large reed belt covering more than half of its surface also needs protection and restoration measures at places. There mainly the sediment and reed quality has been in the focus due to very low dissolved oxygen content especially late summer as a result of insufficient water exchange between the pelagic and littoral zones. To find the way for proper measures to preserve or even improve the existing conditions has initiated long-term hydrodynamic investigations the first phase of which was to explore wind-induced circulations in the pelagic areas.

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 1. Hungary in the Carpathian Basin. Lake Balaton in Mid-West, Lake Fert in North-west, Lake Velence somewhat to the East-Northeast from Balaton.

Much smaller in total surface but covered by reed even in relatively greater extent, Lake Velence with its 2 m average depth is the third in the series that has been thoroughly investigated from hydrodynamic point of view. As the lakebed and the reed cover were significantly reshaped by large scale dredging in the late seventies, it has recently become necessary to identify the main hydrodynamic features of the lake after 20 years. The occasional adverse effects, e.g. unfavourable siltation at places, were also considered in order to support possible future remedial works. The above mentioned three lakes have served as excellent case studies providing both lakespecific features and general conclusions on shallow lakes. In fact, the conditions made it possible to carry out useful cross-verifications especially as far as the new findings were concerned. Comparisons with similar cases from abroad (Finland, China and Germany) further enhanced the validation of the general applicability (Sarkkula et al., 1991; Jinxiu et al, 1999; Podsetchine and Schernewski, 1999).

1.4 Main research tools


In the research projects a fruitful coupling of theory, field measurements and numerical modelling have been performed. As the projects were carried out in several subsequent phases the experience could be recycled and research tools as well as methodologies could be upgraded accordingly.

1.4.1 Field measurements


In all the research campaigns field measurements consisted of simultaneous, long term, automated recording type of observation of the wind, flow and recently turbidity at a number of representative sites. In most cases the campaigns focused only on a particular part of the lake at once. In some phases special emphasis was put on special issues such as e.g. the wind 3

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

speed variation along the fetch, water exchange at the interface zone of adjacent bays, or the circulation structure in near-shore regions. In all the research projects the up-to-date instrumentation provided by Aanderaa Instruments, Norway was utilised. In fact, their wind station, propeller as well as AcousticDoppler type current meters, and optical turbidity sensors have proved very robust tools in most situations. Nevertheless, in order to apply them in the given shallow (typically from 1 to 4 m) conditions, special deploying techniques had to be developed.

1.4.2 Analysis of the field data


The simultaneous wind and flow velocity vector time series collected in the measurement programs were then analysed with special attention to the nature of the processes. Both global characteristics and particular features of prevailing storm events were looked at. Vector time series display, low-, high- and band-pass filtering as well as directional statistics served as the main analysis and evaluation techniques.

1.4.3 Mathematical description and numerical modelling of the processes


The mathematical description of the hydrodynamic processes is based on the general conservation laws applied to volume and momentum. Starting from the general threedimensional time-dependent approach, reasonable simplifications can be introduced due to the shallow water conditions. As will be seen, special forms of the equations facilitate to highlight the main driving mechanisms and understand the importance of the improved representation of external forcing fields. In order to describe the lake-wide water mass transport in most cases the depth-integrated approach of the wind-driven circulation patterns proved sufficient.

1.4.4 Selecting prevailing events


When selecting prevailing storm events and corresponding flow patterns, to identify periods and situations for numerical model calibration and verification was of primary interest. Particular events with clear wind direction, various wind speed range and duration were first classified and subject to inter-comparison.

1.4.5 Model calibration and verification for prevailing events


Model calibration and verification covered the proper tuning of wind, flow and sediment transport models in order to obtain a kind of best fit of the model result to the measured values. Once having calibrated, the reasonable approximation of data in further selected cases could then verify the model parameters. Cases similar to each other could confirm the reproduction ability in given specific situations, whereas the acceptable fitting of calculated and measured quantities in substantially different conditions or lakes could validate the robustness of the approach.

1.4.6 Modelling experiments


Apart from case studies of existing lakes, model experiments in simple, fictitious lake geometry, nevertheless, representing realistic scales, were also performed. The simplified bathymetry and shape made it possible to carry out a number of sensitivity tests efficiently.

1.5 Outline of the present Notes


In the remaining part of the present Notes first an overview of the main lines of the airwater interaction in lake environment, including a model coupling the internal boundary layer development over the lake to the wind shear stress at the lake surface is provided. 4

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Once the main characteristics of the external driving force are given, the governing equations of the water flows are presented. Special interest is paid to the vorticity form of the shallow water equations and the analysis of the various terms playing the role of vorticity sources and sinks in the system. This approach facilitates to identify the main factors and estimate their weight in generating advective circulation patterns. As information gained from field measurements has been so vital in all the research projects, separate chapters are devoted to present the main findings in the three case study lakes. However, a special chapter on the most relevant results of a fictitious lake is inserted after the one on Lake Fert, in order to give a systematic presentation of the most important shallow lake features in simplified conditions. In order to give a typical example on the utility of hydrodynamics research, at last the main principles of the suspended sediment transport modelling of Lake Balaton are given along with the application to planning thin-layer dredging in one part of the lake. Finally a set of recommendations on possible utilisation of the achievements in other shallow lake studies is given, along with the need for field data and numerical models for reasonable adaptation in the local conditions. The Notes are supplemented with a representative, though not complete selection of literature relevant to wind-driven shallow lake hydrodynamics in general and to the various sub-topics in particular.

2 Air-water interaction in lake environment


The air masses moving over the lake surface transfer part of their momentum to the water whereas the wavy water surface, first of all by its characteristic aerodynamic roughness significantly influences the near surface wind profile. In fact, momentum is transferred as a result of complicated air-water interaction mechanism, the proper parameterisation of which is still subject to vast research activities. In the subsequent case studies it has become more and more evident that the theoretical explanation and related numerical reproduction of the measured wind-induced circulation patterns can hardly be done if spatial irregularities inherent in the surface wind shear stress field are poorly represented. The zero-order approach, namely running a flow model with spatially constant wind stress distribution often resulted in flow velocities opposite to the measured ones. In order to explore the main features, relevant space scales, fetch dependent variation and limitation of the wind shear stress, appropriate measurement campaign with special, multiple wind measurement set up had to be performed. Detailed analysis of the simultaneous wind data and thorough parameter calibration of the relationships resulted in a substantially improved estimation of the wind shear stress field over lakes. The essential of the approach, well known in boundary layer meteorology but more or less ignored so far in lake circulations, lays in the development of a so-called internal boundary layer (IBL hereafter) downwind of an abrupt change in the surface roughness conditions, such as the one at the land-water interface. The improved wind stress field could provide good fitting of calculated and measured flow patterns in a wide range of situations. Flow models upgraded according to that proved then in all the other case study lakes the general applicability, provided proper value of the upwind land surface roughness parameter, dependent first of all on the vegetation cover, was introduced.

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

2.1 Near-surface wind and wind shear stress conditions


Before discussing the coupled near-surface air-water model, an introduction to the theoretical and semi-empirical relationships leading to a reasonable estimation of the strength of the momentum flux from the wind to the lake at one particular site is given. It is also meant to provide a better insight to the way of approximation of the surface wind shear stress based on single point wind measurements at a given height above the surface.

2.1.1 Effect of the lake size, surrounding topography and land roughness
Some of the lakes are horizontally large enough to give room to the development of light and moderate winds or short duration storms with significant local differences. There are, however, few lakes large enough to feel the synoptic-scale spatial structure of atmospheric cyclones. As another source of irregularity, large scale topographic features upstream of a lake can also result in spatially varying wind field over the lake and can have occasionally significant impact on shaping the circulation patterns, as have been recognised in several cases. (Shanahan et al., 1986; Jzsa et al., 1990; Jinxiu et al., 1999). Its reasonable estimation needs either dense enough wind measurement network, preferably coupled then with some sort of mezo-scale atmospheric boundary layer model of appropriate vertical and horizontal resolution. However, measurements are seldom dense enough in space to form a firm basis for wind field reconstruction in themselves, moreover, there still seems to be a gap to fill in between numerical modelling capability of small scale computational fluid dynamics problems and large, synoptic scale atmospheric modelling. In any case, near the surface it is primarily the upwind land roughness conditions that determine the vertical structure of the horizontal wind speed. It is of course strongly related to the land use in the surroundings. In case of e.g. more or less homogeneous vegetation cover the wind profile is in equilibrium, which is then severely disturbed by the abrupt change in the surface roughness conditions at the shoreline. In fact, even the most rough-looking water surface is several orders of magnitude smoother in an aerodynamic sense than a typical land surface. This sudden change in the lower boundary conditions for the airflow results in the development of a new, so-called internal boundary layer, the height of which grows along the fetch following rather simple semi-empirical relationships. Within the IBL the well-known logarithmic distribution of the wind speed still holds, whereas outside this layer the profile is undisturbed and preserves its over-land features. However, the momentum flux from air to water is governed by the shear stress at the bottom of the IBL that is at the lake surface. It will be shown that provided the size of the lake in the prevailing wind direction is in the order of less than say 20 km, the IBL-based estimation in thermally neutral, nearly stabilised, moderate and strong winds can explain quite a large part of the wind shear stress distribution.

2.1.2 Roughness conditions on the lake surface


In the formulation and parameterisation of the wavy water surface roughness Charnocks (1955) paper has been proved a milestone. Based on data collected in a moderate size reservoir, it was probably first him to relate the effective height of the roughness elements of the wavy surface to the so-called friction velocity W and the acceleration of gravity g. In average conditions this estimation leads to a value much larger than the typical thickness of the so-called viscous sub-layer, therefore the lake surface is in aerodynamically rough conditions in general. It was much later concluded by Wu (1994) by analysing a combined set of data, that the water surface reaches its least rough state at about 5 m/s, a transition range from capillary to gravity waves, and becomes rougher when either increasing or decreasing in 6

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

speed. In the upper range, the so-called roughness height z 0 due mainly to the shorter waves on the lake surface can be considered simply as
z0 = W2 , g

(1)

providing the well-known, widely used Charnock-formula, with as a coupling parameter. Though considered as a parameter to be calibrated, reasonable results have been widely obtained with a value of 0.0185 given by Wu (1982). Recently, a lot of effort have been also put into linking the aerodynamic roughness height more directly to the wave conditions, furthermore, identifying the role of wave stress and turbulent stress in the total stress, but an overall formula has not come out to date (see e.g. Donelan 1998; Taylor and Yelland, 2001).

2.1.3 Near-surface wind profile and the aerodynamic drag


Once the roughness height is estimated, and there are no significant differences between the air and water temperature, that is the thermal stratification is practically neutral at the interface, the vertical distribution of the near-surface, horizontal wind speed W(z) in terms of the height z above the lake surface obeys the well-known logarithmic law as follows:
W (z ) = W

ln

z , z0

(2)

where is the von Krmn constant equal to 0.4. In fact, it starts with zero speed at the roughness height with sharp initial increase, which becomes then more and more gentle with height. Note that this relationship makes it possible to determine both the roughness height and the friction velocity from wind speed measurements taken in one vertical at two different heights. The ratio of the square of the friction velocity and that of the wind speed at z is known as the aerodynamic drag c z corresponding to the given height (see e.g. Plate and Wengefeld, 1979; Graf and Prost, 1979; Stull, 1991). Using (1) and (2) it is expressed as W2 2 2 . (3) = = 2 Wz2 z 2 zg ln ln W 2 z 0 The customary wind measurement height is usually 10 m for which the drag formula, combining (1), (2) and (3) is cz =

W2 2 2 2 , (4) = = = 2 2 W10 10 2 10 g 2 10 g ln ln ln W 2 z c W 2 0 10 10 Collecting and analysing a number of data from various sources, Wu managed to derive the following linear relationship between the wind at 10 m and the corresponding drag coefficient, proved reasonable from breeze to hurricane (see e.g. Wu, 1982): c10 =

c10 = (0,8 + 0,065W10 ) 10 3 .

(5)

Similar formulae have been derived by a number of researchers with slight differences in the empirical coefficients.
7

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

2.1.4 Momentum exchange at the surface: the wind shear stress


Now using the relationship
W =

s , a

(6)

which by definition links the friction velocity to the surface wind shear stress s and air density a , a series of formulae can be set up, all expressing the shear stress in various combination as follows: (7) 10 10 g ln ln z W 2 0 Note that by using (1), (2), (5) and (6) the whole set of parameters (friction velocity, roughness height, drag coefficient), finally the wind shear stress and the wind profile itself can be determined in an iterative way, based on wind speed measurements taken at one single, arbitrary, though representative height, provided the boundary layer structure above the lake is developed at least as high as the measurement height. In other words, we are in principle free to choose the anemometer height, which is a great help in most field conditions, when facing severe deploying constraints, or if significant, though slow water level changes occur. Once the wind speed and the drag coefficients are determined, the local specific value of the rate of work of the wind on unit water surface area can be given as (West et al., 2000)
2 2 s = aW2 = a c10W10 = a

2 W10 = l 2

2 W10 .

3 E s = a c10W10 .

(8)

If these parameters are known not only locally but all over the lake based on measurements or some functional expansion, the total available work per unit time can be obtained by integrating the specific values over the entire lake surface A as
E s ,t = E s d A .
( A)

(9)

In case the lake is partly vegetated and the emergent vegetation covers significant part of the lake the above mentioned work input is reduced accordingly. Of course the vegetation, either patchy or not, floating on the surface or even if somewhat submerged, can modify the bulk surface roughness conditions, consequently the wind profile and finally the effective wind shear stress acting on the water surface as well.

2.1.5 Effect of an abrupt change in surface roughness: development of the internal boundary layer
As was described earlier, the abrupt change in the aerodynamic roughness conditions at the lakeshore result in an IBL development downwind on the lake. Such phenomena are well known and often detected in the lower part of the atmospheric boundary layer. The name IBL is usually retained for boundary layer developing due to mechanical turbulence whereas the one developing due to temperature changes is called thermal boundary layer. Till very recently, the use of IBL-based wind, wind stress and energy estimations in lake environment have been restricted to determine turbulent energy production rate for vertical temperature stratification calculations in deep lakes, improve humidity and evaporation flux calculations, or to improve wind input for surface wave modelling, only.

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

In the Finnish-Hungarian lake research studies reported here, even if wind was measured often at one single site, detailed flow measurements could indirectly indicate that there spatial structure must be significantly influenced by fetch-dependent wind shear stress variation. In fact, at the typical horizontal length scale of the study lakes fetch-unlimited conditions can hardly be found. It is the case with the IBL development over the lake too in stabilized, neutral conditions, resulting in a continuous speed-up of the wind at given height. As will be seen, however, the the strongest growth rate is found at the initial part, which becomes then asymptotically more and more gentle. As will be also made clear, for a given wind direction this fetch-aligned feature depends mainly on the characteristic land surface roughness and the wind speed, the former being far the most important parameter to calibrate. Though thermal effects can significantly modify the picture, in most of our selected events the conditions were (maybe due to the efficient mixing capacity of the high wind speed) nearly neutral and the mechanically generated IBL alone could explain most of the observed changes. Following the general description given by Taylor and Lee (1984), the IBL height b starts to develop at the shoreline in the section of the abrupt roughness change with an initial thickness

b (0) = z 0, 2 ,

(10)

equal to that of the roughness height z 0, 2 of the lake water surface. Its development is governed mainly by two parameters, the fetch F and the lake surface roughness height as

F b (F ) = 0,75 z 0, 2 (11) z , 0, 2 the roughness being also a function of the fetch. As a result of this gradual change, the vertical profile of the horizontal wind speed consists of two parts: outside the IBL the profile is still assumed to be identical with that given at the shoreline at height z over the land, simply expressed by

0 ,8

b (F ) z :

Wz (F ) = Wz (0) ,
z

(12)

whereas within the IBL the wind speed is determined by the formula

b (F ) > z : Wz (F ) = Wz (0)

ln

z 0, 2 z 0,1 . b (F ) z ln ln z 0,1 z 0, 2

ln

b (F )
(13)

Thus the profile remains logarithmic by nature, however, its actual shape is calculated by two subsequent transformations.

2.2 Coupled modelling of the internal boundary layer and the surface wind shear stress
A coupling between the IBL development and surface wind shear stress estimation can be established if the Charnock-formula for estimating the local lake surface roughness is introduced in the algorithm in an iterative way. It means to solve the IBL and surface roughness height development along the fetch given the wind speed, its measurement height (the so-called anemometer height) over the land and the land roughness height. Since the lake

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

roughness calculation requires the wind speed at 10 m, an initial transformation is needed if wind data happen to be available at a height different from that as follows: 10 z 0,1 . W10 (0) = Wza (0) za ln z 0,1 ln

(14)

Using (1), (5) and (6) tailored to the IBL formulae (11) and (13) a wind speed equal to W10 (F ) = W10 (0) ln

10 b (F ) ln ln z 0,1 z 0, 2 (F )

(F ) 10 ln b z 0,1 z 0 , 2 (F )

(15)

can be obtained iteratively, which gives then the actual speed in case

b (F ) > 10 : b (F ) 10 :

W10 (F ) = W10 (F ) , W10 (F ) = W10 (0) .

(16)

whereas no change occurs in case (17) A set of longitudinal profiles is given below on the fetch- and wind speed-dependent behaviour of the parameters. A typical range of wind speed capable to induce significant water motion was used and the first 2 km of the fetch was considered. The roughness height of the upwind land was set to 0.15 m, a verified characteristic value for Lake Fert, as will be seen later. Note especially the longitudinal wind and shear stress profile, moreover its significant increase due to enhanced 0.4 m roughness, representing high (but not densely packed) forest.
100

90

80

70

60 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s b , [m]

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 2. Development of the internal boundary layer over the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.

10

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

0.001

0.0009

0.0008

0.0007

0.0006 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s z 0,2, [m]

0.0005

0.0004

0.0003

0.0002

0.0001

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 3. Roughness height of the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.

0.002

0.0018

0.0016

0.0014

0.0012 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s C 10, [m]

0.001

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 4. Aerodynamic drag coefficient along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.

11

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics


15

14

13

12

11 W 10, [m/s] 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s

10

5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 5. Wind speed at 10 m height above the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s 0.3

f , [Pa]
0.2 0.1 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 6. Wind shear stress at the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15m.

12

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics


0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 12 m/s 10 m/s 8 m/s 0.3

f , [Pa]
0.2 0.1 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Figure 7. Wind shear stress at the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.4 m.

3 Mathematical description of wind-induced lake flows


In the overview of the mathematical description of wind-induced lake hydrodynamics we first follow the derivation by Simons (1980) and Falconer (1994) but then pay particular attention on the so-called vorticity form of the depth-integrated governing equations. By using that, the role of the various terms played in the generation and shaping of the circulation patterns becomes certainly more visible. Vorticity input first of all due to the curl of the wind shear stress field (absent in case of uniform distribution), and that of the relative bottom gradient will be discussed as their joint effect seem to play the main role in the process. In order to quantify water mass exchange mechanisms in complex conditions, a novel simulation method of the so-called mean residence time distribution will be also presented, and later on applied when investigating of the sensitivity of the wind-induced processes on various parameters.

3.1 Three-dimensional governing equations


The conservation of water volume and momentum in space and time expressed in velocity -pressure form, assuming constant density and hydrostatic pressure distribution, often valid in shallow water bodies under the action of wind can be written as follows: u v w + + =0, x y z 1 p u u u u , +u +v +w = fv t x y z x 1 p v v v v , + u + v + w = fu t x y z y 13 (18) (19) (20)

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

g=

1 p . z

(21)

where x, y and z are Cartesian space coordinates, u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z-direction, p is pressure, is water density and f is the Coriolis coefficient due to the earth rotation. Given that there is at least an order of magnitude difference between the horizontal and vertical velocity magnitudes, after appropriate time-averaging, adopting the Boussinesq approximation for turbulent momentum exchange and introducing the divergence operator = , x y (22)

in the horizontal plane only, the momentum equations from now on for the time-averaged variables can be written as

u u 1 p + v u = fv + ( t ,h u ) + t ,v , t z z x v v 1 p + v v = fu + ( t ,h v ) + t ,v t z z y

(23) (24)

where v stands for the (u, v) horizontal velocity vector, t ,h and t ,v are the horizontal and vertical eddy viscosity coefficient, respectively, and from this point on all the variables are meant to be the so-called Reynolds-averaged ones. In free surface flows for these equations at the free surface the
z = : w= + v t (25)

so-called kinematic condition, whereas at the bottom


z = zb :

w = v z b

(26)

boundary condition applies. To make the description complete, one has to specify the momentum flux at both boundaries, expressed in the form of shear stresses as follows: z = : t ,v
u s , x = , z v s , y = , z u b , x = , z v s , y = , z

(27) (28) (29) (30)

t ,v

z = z b : t ,v

t ,v

where s, x and s, y are the surface, b, x and b, y are the bottom shear stress components, respectively.
14

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

3.2 Identifying the shallow water conditions


In certain conditions further simplifications can be introduced to the above description, the validity of which can be determined by various characteristic dimensionless and dimensional quantities (Simons, 1980; Shanahan et al., 1981; Hutter, 1984). In the following paragraphs the case study lakes will be analysed from this point of view, in order to define shallowness in the light of these quantities. First, it is important to estimate the rate of irregularity in the vertical profile of the horizontal velocities, whether the flow can be reasonably approximated by depth-averaged values. For this purpose Hutter (1984) introduced the =
Th H 2V = Tadv 4 t ,v L

formula, where H is the characteristic depth, V is the characteristic horizontal velocity and L is the characteristic horizontal length scale over which the velocity presents a significant change. It expresses the ratio of the Th and Tadv characteristic timescales of momentum transport generated by the t ,v vertical eddy viscosity and the V horizontal advection, respectively. In case this ration is much smaller than unity (say < 0.1), it indicates that the irregularities in the vertical profile of the horizontal advective velocity are efficiently damped by the vertical eddy viscosity, as a result of which the profile is quite uniform except of course the highly sheared near boundary regions. Assuming 2 10 3 m2/s for the eddy viscosity (see e.g. Simons, 1980; Shanahan et al., 1981; Hutter, 1984; Signell et al., 1990), is estimated for the study lakes as follows:

Lake Balaton: H=3m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 5 10 3 m 0.02 ; Lake Fert, inner bays: H=1,5m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 10 3 m 0.03 ; Lake Fert, large northern pelagic region: H=2m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 5 10 3 m 0.01 ; Lake Velence, middle pelagic region: H=2m; V= 5 10 2 m/s; L= 2 10 3 m 0.01 . As can be seen the criteria are met in every case, which means in other words that the flow field can be approximated in depth-averaged way, without significant loss of information in the description of the resulting horizontal water exchange, compared to direct threedimensional simulations. In order to determine if the Coriolis-effect is able to exert its influence in the vertical resulting in the Ekman-spiral in the velocity field, Simons (1980) and Heaps (1984) suggested to use the H = 2 t ,v

dimensionless depth, as the ratio of the characteristic depth and the so-called Ekman-, or friction-depth. In case this quantity is much smaller than unity, the velocity distribution along the vertical is dominated only by the shear stresses at the surface and the bottom, otherwise there is room for the Ekman-spiral to develop. It is to be noted that in moderate wind conditions accompanied with moderate vertical eddy viscosity even a small depth lake can behave as if it was deep in the sense of the above parameters, as was shown by several field

15

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

measurements data. Assuming f = 10 4 s 1 at the latitude of the case study lakes, can be estimated as follows: Lake Balaton: 0.15 ; Lake Fert, inner bays: 0.08 ; Lake Fert, large northern pelagic region: 0.1 ; Lake Velence, middle pelagic region: 0.1 .

3.3 Depth-integrated approach


Though losing the vertical structure, nevertheless, in shallow conditions preserving most of the horizontal water mass transport features, the governing equations can be integrating along the vertical resulting in a set of equations for the

q x = u ( z )d z , q y = v( z )d z
zb zb

(31)

specific discharges (or volume fluxes), and for the

h = zb
water depth. Dividing the fluxes by the depth results in the depth-averaged velocities

(32)

qy qx , V= . (33) h h Applying the boundary conditions, considering that pressure gradients over large domains can be originated also from the pa atmospheric pressure, and introducing a so-called momentum dispersion coefficient accounting for momentum correction in averaged nonuniform velocity profile, the following set of equations hold: U= + q = 0 t p p a = g + x x x p p a + = g y y y q x h pa s , x b, x + (Vq x ) = fq y gh + + ( e,h q x ) t x x
q y t + (Vq y ) = fq x gh h pa s , y b , y + + ( e ,h q y ) y y

(34) (35) (36) (37) (38)

16

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

3.4 Three-dimensional approach with analytical solution of the velocity profile


Not discussed here in details, we mention that there are approximate analytical ways to reconstruct the vertical distribution of the horizontal velocities. We refer to the work of Cruz (1997), who managed to set up an analytical profile with sharp, logarithmic transition both at the surface and at the bottom, often found in nature and lab conditions. It can then serve to quantify the dispersion correction coefficient and to obtain proper bottom shear stresses more realistic than the ones estimated on depth-averaged velocity basis.

3.5 Governing equation in vorticity form


Assuming steady-state flow conditions as a result of long enough constant external forcing, smooth spatial variation of the momentum correction coefficient and introducing a depthaveraged horizontal momentum exchange coefficient, the depth averaged momentum equations can be written as

V U = fV g

s , x b , x 1 + + ( e ,h hU ) , x h h h s , y b , y 1 + + ( e ,h hV ) . y h h h

(39) (40)

V V = fU g

A different form of the above set of equations can be established for the velocity and the

V U = V x y

(41)

curl of the depth-averaged velocity by taking the curl of the equation set resulting in

V = ( + f ) V +

s 1 b + ( e ,h h V ) , h h h

(42)

representing the overall transport of vorticity in a velocity field influenced largely of course by the vorticity itself in a domain small enough for the Coriolis coefficient to be constant. Further simplifications are introduced assuming that horizontal vorticity exchange is governed mainly by an apparent local viscosity coefficient giving the form

V = ( + f ) V +

s b + h 2 . h h

(43)

Expending the two first terms on the right hand side, applying the continuity relationship and multiplying by the depth provides the final form of the vorticity balance as follows:
hV = ( + f )V h +

1 1 h 2 s s h b + h h h h

(44)

17

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

3.6 Analysis of the vorticity balance


Below a short interpretation of the various terms in the vorticity balance is given, with special attention on the sources and their dependence on the main lake characteristics. One has to keep in mind that in the simplified system vorticity with vertical axis that is rotating in the horizontal plain can only occur.

3.6.1 Vorticity advection and dispersion


The terms

hV
and
h h 2

(45)

(46)

express the advective transport and horizontal redistribution (with a tendency toward smoothing) of the vorticity once introduced to the computational domain.

3.6.2 Vorticity sources


The term

V h

(47)

expresses the effect of the depth variation on strengthening or weakening vorticity. Imagine vertical vortex tubes attached both to the surface and the bottom according to Helmholtzs principle, which then stretch or shorten, consequently speed up or slow down in angular velocity when transported toward deeper or shallower zones, respectively. Thus advective transport along isobaths results in no change in vorticity. The term

fV h

(48)

represents the vorticity source due to the Earth rotation itself. Note, however, that this term differs from zero only if flows are not parallel to the isobaths. Consequently long-shore flows are not affected, but so are e.g. the end-zones of elongated-shape semi-or totally enclosed basins. From the point of view of shallow lake circulation certainly the most important terms are 1

and

(49)

1 h , h s

(50)

(49) representing the vorticity introduced to the system by the curl of the wind shear stress field resulting from its spatial irregularity governed largely by the IBL evolution discussed earlier, and the combined effect of the local wind shear stress vector and relative bottom gradient in the form of a vector-product (50). Note first that in case of uniform wind shear stress field (49) vanishes and the bottom slope related term dominates the circulation resulting in the well-known barotropic topographic gyres. Second, bottom gradient are activated as vorticity sources by wind shear stresses inclined to them, that is winds perpendicular to 18

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

isobaths do not do that, but winds blowing parallel to them are most efficient in that. Third, as can be seen (50) scales inversely with the depth whereas (49) is independent of it, consequently in given bottom topography conditions lake-wide water level rising results in weakening, in turn water level lowering in strengthening of (50) against (49). These features will be referred to both in the case studies and in the analysis of the simple model lake behaviour.

3.6.3 Vorticity sinks


Vorticity sinks in the system are linked to dissipation terms acting at the bottom as

(51) (52)

b h h

their primary influence is to suck vorticity out of the system via rotation damping due to friction.

3.6.4 Relative weight of the source terms and their role in inducing circulations
A rigorous order of magnitude analysis of the different terms should be carried out in dimensionless form by introducing characteristic length and velocity scales. Here we skip going into the details, merely underline that in our study cases the source terms related to the wind shear stress and the bottom gradient dominated the patterns. We will discuss it including also some deviatory cases and locations in the modelling chapters.

3.7 Depth-integrated governing equations


The numerical model applied to describe the wind-induced seiche motion and the circulatory water mass transport pattern is based on the following, somewhat further simplified form of the governing equations as follows:
q x q y + + =0 t x y
2 q x q x q x q y + + t x h y h

(53)
(h + zb ) s , x s , x = fq y gh + + e ,h 2 q x , x

(54)

q y

qy + t y h

qx q y + x h

(h + zb ) s , y s , y = fq x gh + + e,h 2 q y , y

(55)

supplied with the IBL-based surface wind shear stress model outlined earlier, and

b, x = b, y =

g
k h k h
2 2 73

2 qx + q 2 qx , y

(56) (57)

g
73

2 qx + q 2 q y , y

conventional Manning-type quadratic bottom shear stress laws.

19

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

The discretised numerical solution of the equation set is performed by standard finite difference method on equidistant Cartesian grid.

3.8 Transport modelling of water exchange processes


Though the flow model provides the space-time evolution of the wind-induced lake motion, further modelling techniques are needed for quantifying more in details e.g. its exchange mechanism.

3.8.1 Water exchange as water mass advection-dispersion


Focusing on quantifying the water mass exchange only, the process in depth integrated form can be considered as conventional advection-dispersion, where this time the transported substance is the water itself. Residence time (in some other interpretation flushing time) is one of the representative indicators of water exchange efficiency. There are various ways to estimate it either on an Eulerian solute transport or Lagrangian particle-tracking basis. Below, however, a novel technique will be briefly outlined making it possible to calculate even socalled mean residence time fields and their dynamics on a water age simulation basis (Jzsa and Krmer, 2000; Jzsa et al., 2001).

3.8.2 Water exchange characterised as the evolution of the mean residence time field
In the approach, in a way identical to the conventional advection-dispersion description the age of water masses is considered as transport variable. Water masses with various age in the study domain are advected without age modification, undergo mixing to each other and get older following a zero-order reaction kinetics law, expressing the fact that ageing is linear in time and independent from the actual age. The one-dimensional form of the equation with pure advection and unit rate of growth of the residence time R with boundary condition representing zero age at the inflow section can be written as

R R = u + 1, R( x0 , t ) = 0 , t x

(58)

providing linearly increasing longitudinal residence time distribution at constant flow velocity. Including turbulent diffusion (and assuming mixing of water particles is identical to that of any other substance dissolved in it will give the following concise vector form of the process:

R (59) + v R (D t R ) = 1 . t In the investigations to be presented later on here the depth integrated version of the approach is applied written as (hRh ) + (VhRh ) (hD d Rh ) = h . t
(60)

3.8.3 Residence time field decomposition into contributions of subdomains


The basically Eulerian description can get some Lagrangian character if the study domain is divided into characteristic sub-regions (e.g. zone with emergent or submerged vegetation, areas with polluted bottom sediment etc.) and the residence time is decomposed to the

20

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

contributions of the sub-regions by means of a kind of multi-species version of the approach as follows:

(hRh , j ) t

+ (VhRh , j ) (hD d Rh , j ) = h ,

(61)

based on which the overall mean residence time field can be reconstructed by simple summation as
R h = Rh , j .
j =1 n

(62)

3.8.4 Applied numerical transport model


The two-dimensional equation given above is solved by finite differences on a grid identical with that of the flow model. In order to avoid numerical diffusion and oscillations, the advective terms are approximated by appropriate, higher order robust upwind schemes (Koren, 1993).

4 Field measurement of wind-induced flows


As was already mentioned in the introduction, making field measurements successful required reliable, up-to-date instrumentation, proper deploying methodology, as well as advanced analysis of the enormous amount of data provided by the recording instruments.

4.1 Applied tools, measuring and deploying principles


The wind, flow and turbidity measurements carried out in the joint research projects in the case study lakes made use of the development efforts of Aanderaa Instruments, Norway. In fact the company, specialised to sea conditions mainly, has put more and more attention to make its instruments robust enough to use also in shallow lake conditions. Even some of their products were used as one of their first applications in Hungarian lakes, occasionally in extreme wind, flow or turbidity conditions. The first 10 years of application in Hungarian surface waters was overviewed and evaluated in the framework of an international workshop held at Lake Balaton in 1997 (see Fig. 8). Fig. 9 shows the standard wind direction and speed sensors, to be attached to data scanning and storing units, whereas one version of the traditional propeller-type current meter RCM7 and the most recently developed Acoustic-Doppler current meter RCM 9 are seen in Fig. 10. The two latter is mounted onto a data logger and RCM9 is supplied also with e.g. turbidity, conductivity, temperature, pressure and dissolved oxygen sensors. Measurements are made with high time resolution and data at pre-selected regular intervals are stored as integral averages. The interval can be set from 1 minute to 2 hours upon demand, however, given limited data storing capacity it determines the time the instrument is able to collect data continuously. The customary interval applied all over the projects has been 10 minutes.

21

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 8. Balaton.

Workshop on the 10 years anniversary of Aanderaa Instruments operating in Lake

The acoustic-Doppler current and optical turbidity sensors are available also separately, which requires then a data logger to connect. Several deployment techniques have been tested. The most recently developed method shown in Fig. 11 has been applied either in very shallow water or in investigating currents in the lower part of the vertical. The current meters have been used both in single- and multilayer measurements. Due to the size, to the disturbances of the acoustic signal near the boundaries as well as to the presence of surface waves, in very shallow conditions it is often one single set-up in a vertical that can be perform, only. Nevertheless, the currents have been in all cases captured in representative amount containing a number of pronounced events ideal for analysis as well as numerical model calibration.

22

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

(a)
Figure 9.

(b)

Standard Aanderaa wind speed (a) and direction (b) sensors.

(a)
Figure 10. Aanderaa RCM7 and 9 recording current meters.

(b)

Figure 11. Customary bottom deployment set-up for RCM9 in shallow water.

23

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

4.2 Data processing and analysis


Wind and flow data collected simultaneously at a number of sites in long term campaigns have to be jointly analysed in order to explore the relationships between the external driving force and the lake response to that. Both overall and separate event-based analyses are needed to identify at all important scales. Prevailing events are then utilised also in model calibration and verification. In fact, apart from statistical forecasting, the only tool for making prediction on the future fate of a lake is a numerical model validated against measured field data. Such a tool is useful then to investigate e.g. the impact of any natural or man-made change in the lake, and also to evaluate measures in order to maintain existing or restore favourable past conditions of the lake. When analysing either the entire period of a particular campaign or selected events, there are basically three main tools to draw lake-specific information from the data.

4.2.1 Vector-time series representation


An informative displaying method of the raw or filtered data is their vector time series representation along the time axis. In the version adopted here the vectors lay with their foot point on the axis and point away from it, but no arrowhead is used in order to avoid disturbing graphical overlapping. At the beginning of the axis a reference scale is given in m/s and in cm/s for the wind and water current, respectively. Note that vectors represent values valid at the time at their foot point, which needs some care to find at places.

4.2.2 Directional statistics


The most traditional way to present wind and lake current statistics is the so-called wind and current rose, which gives the simple directional distribution of the velocity vectors. Note that by convention for the wind the frequency values in percentage are put in the direction where the wind was blowing from, whereas for the currents they are put in the direction the flow is pointing to. Once weighting the calculus by the speed and its square, one obtains the route and energy distribution, respectively. The first is applied usually in air pollution studies for the wind and e.g. for suspended sediment advection characterisation for the currents, where it is important to know the directions to propagate at the largest distances. For lake hydrodynamics, however, the wind energy distribution (a term inherited from the general kinetic energy formula), proportional in fact with the surface wind shear stress is relevant. Similar to that, the current energy directional distribution represents the directions in which the sediment stirring up capability of the flow is the most energetic. In the present study the total circle is split into 16 sectors providing 22.5o resolution.

4.2.3 Digital filtering of the time series


In order to decompose the vector time series to characteristic elements representing any pre-selected range of their kinetic energy spectra over the time period, appropriate numerical filtering techniques are applied. In the present study a Gaussian-type filtering algorithm is used for the so-called low and band-pass filtering of the data. Low pass filtering stands for removing variability with characteristic frequency higher, or corresponding time period shorter than a prescribed cut-off value, thus preserving the parts varying slower than that. Band-pass filtering aims at preserving elements with periodicity falling into the range within two chosen cut-off values. Using subsequent ranges the time series can be decomposed into their harmonics, representing different portion of the total kinetic energy content. This technique makes it possible to find e.g. the compounds of the wind most relevant from the energetic point of view for a lake with characteristic response time scale to turbulence, wave, seiche and circulation generation (see e.g. Findikakis and Law, 1999; 24

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Luettich et al., 1990; Jzsa et al., 2000). As to the currents, compounds due to seiche can be separated from the ones representing circulatory motion. In doing so, in general low-pass filtering removing the compounds with less than 1 hour periodicity is applied, along with an appropriate band-pass filtering to capture the first mode of the local seiche if there is any. For demonstration the simple algorithm of the Gaussian-type low-pass filtering technique is given below in which represents half of the so-called cut-off time period: ~ x jc , 2 =

j = jc

x G( j j )
j c

jc +

(63)

1 G ( j jc ) = e
xjc , 2 = x jc ~ jc , 2 x

( j jc )2 2

(64) (65) (66)

~ x jc , 2 1 2 2 = ~ jc , 2 1 ~ jc , 2 2 x x

5 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Fert (Neusiedl)


The first case study lake to be presented is Lake Fert situated at the Austro-Hungarian water, with a special character of being largely covered by reed (Fig. 12). The average depth of the pelagic areas is less than 2 m whereas in the read covered zones, occupying more than half of the lake surface, the average depth is below half a meter.

Figure 12. Layout of Lake Fert (Neusiedl). Note the large reed belt.

Both in the pelagic and littoral zones the bottom is very flat and mild-slope, which expects to give a pronounced role to the spatial irregularities in the surface wind shear stress field. The lakebed is muddy with strong siltation tendencies at places. Water exchange between the pelagic and littoral zones is often poor resulting then in occasional reed quality deterioration.
25

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Large part of the lake has recently become a joint national park shared by the two countries. Due to it uniqueness the lake is a good candidate to be a member of the World Heritage. A typical interface area between the pelagic and littoral zones can be seen in Fig. 13, giving an impression on the reed height and density, as well as on the water colour in such highly vegetated areas.

Figure 13. Typical reed zone. Note the brownish in-reed water and the turbidity patches due to the passing-by motorboat.

5.1 Progress in field measurements


Regular hydro-meteorological observations have long been going on at the lake (see the lake station in Fig. 14). However, hydrodynamic explorations started in the late seventies only with very simple tools like floaters, and replaced by up-to-date instrument in the nineties only, in the framework of the Finnish-Hungarian lake cooperation.

Figure 14. Hydro-meteorological station at the lake. Roofs are made from local reed.

26

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

5.2 Wind conditions


This part of the Carpathian Basin is especially windy making lake hydrodynamics very active all over the year. Both long-term observations and shorter, month long high resolution data, collected during the recent measurement projects are available for sound characterisation.

5.2.1 Prevailing winds


As seen in Fig. 15, there exists a particular axis with NNW-SSE orientation, which give most of the wind directions. NW-NNW is far the most energetic, thus considered prevailing from the point of view of generating circulations as well as seiche motion.

Figure 15. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured over the lake between 28 October 6 December, 1995.

5.2.2 Investigation of the near-surface wind conditions in a bay


Fertrkos Bay, situated in the Western side of the Hungarian part of the lake is the most investigated area of the lake. Several measurement campaigns have been carried out there in order to explore the details of the water and related sediment motion, along with the water exchange across the reed - open water interface zone. Strong clock-wise bay-wide circulations have been very often found to develop despite the fact the bay bottom is nearly horizontal. Namely, the depth in the middle part do not exceed 1.5 m whereas drops to 1 m next to the reed border, where a half a meter high sudden step is observed and prevails in the littoral zone. This has been proven suitable to carry out the field measurements focusing on the IBL development and related circulation pattern. In order to do so, a special measurement set-up was conceived as seen in Fig.16, measuring the wind speed along the prevailing wind direction axis at two sites, some 1.5 km far from each other and a bit more than 100 m far from the reed border each. Reed stems on average were less then 3 m high. Upwind from the bay the reed belt, though patchy at places, is more or less continuous, expected to give room to full wind profile development over those characteristic roughness conditions. The sensors were set at 3.3 m high, to be outside the wave-disturbed layer. At both sites RCM9 current meters were deployed too to measure the currents induced simultaneously. 2001 Spring Site No. 1. flow 2. flow 1. wind 2. wind Water depth, m 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 Sensor depth, m 0.6 0.7 Sensor height: 3.3 Sensor height: 3.3 27 Instrument type RCM9 RCM9 Standard Aanderaa Standard Aanderaa

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 16. Wind and flow measurement sites (indicated with dots) in 2001.

5.2.3 Calibration and verification of the surface wind shear stress model
The simultaneous wind data collected over a month have been used then for calibrating and verifying the IBL-model for the area. The IBL development in the study area has been proven a very well defined process for which the IBL-model outlined earlier could be calibrated with high confidence. Some 6 prevailing storm events coming basically from NNW were detected and used for the overall validation. The technique adopted here was to carry out an inverse transformation of the speeds to the reed border from both wind measurement sites and check the agreement there. As can be seen in Fig. 17, raw data at Site 2 has got strong trend to give substantially higher speed due to the fetch generally 1.5 km longer. In the figure all the data corresponding to the prevailing wind sector and not deviating too much from each other (which was most often the case) are displayed. The coupled speeds corresponding to 0.15 m reed roughness height, obtained by a least square fitting basis, are shown in Fig. 18. Frankly, the determinism found in the system is strong enough, at the same time the points scatter enough to make it even more convincing. Performing the parameter fitting for the selected individual storm events the roughness height varied between 0.1 and 0.18 m, a very narrow range compared to very wide ones given in relevant boundary layer meteorology textbooks for various canopy types. Apart from the wind data, Fig. 19 shows also the current velocity vectors, measured simultaneously at the two sites. It comes out clearly that in the absence of significant bottom gradients the strong imbalance in the surface wind shear stress dominates the bay-wide circulations, in which water masses go with the wind in the strongly exposed downwind zone, whereas return currents occur in the upwind-zone relatively poor in wind shear stress. 28

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

16

14

12 Mrt Wza a 2. pontban, [m/s]

10

Teljes egyezs

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Mrt W za az 1. pontban, [m/s]

Figure 17. Simultaneous wind speeds measured at Site 1 (horizontal axis) and Site 2 (vertical axis) with 300-350 direction and less than 30 difference. Perfect agreement indicated by continuous line.

16

14

W 10(0) a 2. pontbl transzformlva, [m/s]

12

10

Teljes egyezs

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 W 10(0) az 1. pontbl transzformlva, [m/s]

Figure 18. Simultaneous wind speeds transformed from Site 1 (horizontal axis) and Site 2 (vertical axis) to the upwind reed border. Perfect agreement indicated by continuous line.

29

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics


1. pont 15 15 1. pont

Wy , [m/s] -15 0 u , [cm/s] 15

v , [cm/s]

-15

-15 -15 0 W x , [m/s] 15

2. pont 15 15

2. pont

v , [cm/s]

Wy , [m/s] -15 0 u , [cm/s] 15

-15

-15 -15 0 W x , [m/s] 15

Figure 19. Simultaneous wind (left) and flow (right) at Site 1 (upper) and Site 2 (lower), indicated by their end point only.

5.3 Wind-induced flows


In this section the simultaneous wind and flow vector time series of the strongest storm event of the measurement period discussed above will be displayed followed by another representative prevailing event selected from an earlier measurement campaign, carried out in different set-up in the bay. Model calibration will be then shortly presented for the prevailing winds and circulation patterns. Similar procedure will be done for the large, Northern part of the lake for which both measured and modelled patterns will be overviewed. Finally conclusions about the water exchange as a combined effect of circulations and seiche will be dawn.

5.3.1 Prevailing circulation patterns in the study bay


Fig. 20-21 shows the low-pass filtered time series of the event selected from 2001. Based on spectral analysis, compounds with periodicity up to 5 hours considered to contain most of the seiche, consequently variation slower than that (seen in Fig. 21) were taken representative to find the circulatory pattern. The differences in wind speed between the two sites, moreover, the stability of the flow in direction, and closely following the large-scale variation of the wind in magnitude are all evident. Fig. 22 gives a typical snapshot of the pattern prevailing in its structure for nearly two day, resulting certainly in efficient, bay-wide water exchange. Fig. 23-27 further confirm the development of the above mentioned pattern in NNW wind, and the behaviour found at Site 7 suggests similar structure also outside the bay. Fig. 27 gives an insight to the directional distribution, sufficiently stable to prove indirectly that the pattern is primarily two-dimensional, that is the water mass transport occurs mainly in lateral sense, rather than in the form of an overturning flow, for which the water is unfavourably shallow to develop at low momentum loss level. 30

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 20. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 1, wind 2, flow 1, flow 2. Harmonics with less than 1 hour time period removed.

Figure 21. Same as Fig. 20, but harmonics with time period lass than 5 hours removed.

31

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 22. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 6/4/2001 14:00. Wind vectors shifted to the circles to be distinguishable.

Figure 23. Measurement sites in 1995.

32

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

1995 Autumn Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. Wind: 2. Water depth, m 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 Sensor depth, m 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM7 DCS 3500 RCM4S RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S Standard Aanderaa

Figure 24. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 2; flow 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

33

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 25. Same as Fig. 24, but here fluctuations with less than 5 hours time period removed.

Figure 26. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/18/1995 14:00. Wind vector shifted to 2W to be distinguishable.

34

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 27. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 25-26. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-5 hours periodicity band retained.

35

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

5.3.2 Model calibration for prevailing circulation patterns


A 200 m cell size grid was used to apply the depth-integrated finite difference flow model for the lake. The wind shear stress field was provided by the IBL-based model, for which no further calibration was needed. Instead, the smoothness coefficients of the pelagic areas and inside the reed were subject to tuning. As to the wind effect on the reed-covered zones, it was entirely disregarded due to the high reed density. Reaching steady-state conditions, the difference between the flow patterns corresponding to constant (Fig. 30) and IBL-dependent (Fig. 31) shear stress field is striking, the latter being very close to what was measured in similar, stabilised conditions. Note that the fully opposite, SSE wind direction results in the same sense of rotation of the water in the bay due to the changes in the wind stress field. For that direction, the bulk reed roughness was taken somewhat lower, expressing the effect on the wind profile by crossing a number of bays and reed islands along the long fetch. Water residence time simulations focusing on the estimation of the time that water masses spend in the Northern part of the bay in half a day in prevailing wind conditions are shown in Fig. 33. The large differences between applying constant and IBL-dependent wind shear stress forcing can be clearly seen.

Figure 28. Bottom topography and reed cover of the lake displayed on the 200 m cell size finite difference grid.

Figure 29. Zooming in on the study bay.

36

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 30. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=13m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities within the study bay are around 6 cm/s.

Figure 31. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=12m/s NNW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the study bay around 12 cm/s.

37

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 32. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=10m/s SSE wind and 0.06 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the study bay around 8 cm/s.

Figure 33. Half a day state of the distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Northern half of the study bay, induced by modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 30 (left) and Fig. 31 (right).

38

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

5.3.3 Hydrodynamic exploration of the Northern pelagic area


As to the orientation, more or less the same exposure to the wind is found in the large, Northern pelagic area of the lake, so as one would expect it results then rather similar circulation patterns, too. The extensive measurement campaign carried out in 1992 gave several events in which the expected pattern holds. In fact, though fetches are much longer, the vorticity introduced by the wind shear stress vector field seems sufficient to exceed the one due to the rather mild depth gradients, of course somewhat enhanced by shallowness. Fig. 35-36 shows the time series of one typical event during which lake-wide, stable circulation was induced by the two days long, strong wind. It can be also seen, however, how intensive back-flow could be generated by the seemingly harmless change in the wind speed at about half of the period. Observe that for Site 8 the velocity scaling is significantly reduced, to make it suitable for plotting together with the other data. At that particular site the straits substantially speed up the currents which are then locally mainly gravity- rather than winddriven there. A typical snapshot of the pattern and the directional statistics are given in Fig. 37 and 38, respectively. Modelled flow field with the simplistic constant wind forcing is seen in Fig. 39, whereas the calibrated pattern with 0.15 m upwind reed belt roughness is given in Fig 40, representing the significant differences particularly in the West of the lake. Both here and in the previous study bay Manning k equal to 40 in the pelagic, and equal to 6 inside the reed proved reasonable.

Figure 34. Measurement sites in 1992. Wind measured at Site 3.

39

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

1992 Spring Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. Wind: 3. Water depth, m 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.8 Sensor depth, m 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S Standard Aanderaa

Figure 35. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 3; flow 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

40

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 36. The same as Fig. 35, but fluctuations with less than 5 hours time period removed.

Figure 37. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 5/4/1992 11:00. Wind vector shifted outside the lake to be distinguishable.

41

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 38. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 36-37. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-5 hours periodicity band retained.

42

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 39. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=13m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities around 6 cm/s.

Figure 40. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=12m/s NNW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities around 12 cm/s.

43

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

5.3.4 Water exchange mechanisms as a combination of the seiche and circulations


Analysing the combined effect of circulations and seiche, it seems to play a key role in generating water exchange between zones linked to each other via relatively narrow straits only. In fact, water masses being in desperate back and forth motion at the interface area due to the seiche are taken away by unidirectional circulations bringing than certainly different water masses there by the time the oscillating flow turns. That is what actually happens e.g. at the North-east entrance area of the study bay and results in sufficient flushing of the bay to prevent it from becoming an entirely enclosed, inner bay.

6 Model investigations in a fictitious sample lake


The understanding of the phenomena based on the data and model analyses presented so far can be further improved by considering a simple, fictitious lake geometry, however, with ratios similar to the ones in the previous study bay, and carry out modelling experiments systematically in characteristic conditions

6.1 Aims of the investigations


The basic bottom topography of the basin is seen in Fig. 41. It is 1.5 m deep in the middle, which drops then gradually somewhat below 1 m toward the shore. Apart from the basic setup, one with reed belt in the Western side, and another with bottom dredging at the same place is also considered. 10 m/s NW and SE steady state winds are applied both with spatially constant and IBL-based distribution.

Figure 41. Bottom topography of the sample lake displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.

6.2 Joint effect of the depth and wind shear stress distribution
Fig. 42 shows the IBL-based distribution of the wind shear stress for NW wind. The distribution of the two main vorticity sources in this situation is presented in Fig. 43. As can be seen they compete each other in the upwind near-shore zone. In the given conditions the wind stress curl related term proves stronger there resulting basically one single, basin-wide 44

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

clock-wise circulation (Fig. 45 right), in sharp contrast with the one traditionally obtained as typical two-cell circulation under uniform external forcing. The results belonging to the opposite SE wind direction are given in Fig. 46. While the pattern due to uniform wind becomes a mirror image, the IBL-based forcing results in a baywide circulation with unchanged sense of rotation. It is interesting to see the pattern of the half an hour streak lines in the flow fields discussed above. Based on that the structures for opposite wind directions look very similar, however, for uniform wind field the sense of rotation of the two cells is reversed whereas for the non-uniform one prevails. The mean residence time distributions obtained after 6 hours clearly show even quantify the differences in the water exchange mechanism in Fig. 49-50. Fig. 51 tackles an also important issue, namely the changes of the flow pattern due to significant rising or lowering of the lake water level. As can be seen, dropping the level by 0.7 m strengthens the vorticity source due to the near-shore relative bottom gradient to an extent compensating, even exceeding its counterpart, which results then in the appearance of the twin gyre. On the contrary, the same amount if rise in the water level makes the one-gyre circulation even more pronounced. Note that three-dimensional effects were disregarded here.

Figure 42. Wind shear stress field in Pascal over the lake according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.

45

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 43.

s (left) and ( s h ) / h (right) fields in Pa/m over the lake according to the IBL

development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.

Figure 44.

s ( s h ) / h field in Pa/m over the lake according to the IBL development

corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.

46

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 45. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by wind shear stress field uniform over the lake corresponding to W10=11m/s NW wind (left); and by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore (right). Flow velocity in cm/s.

Figure 46. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by wind shear stress field uniform over the lake corresponding to W10=11m/s SE wind (left); and by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s SE wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore (right). Flow velocity in cm/s.

47

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 47. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns seen in Fig. 45.

Figure 48. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns seen in Fig. 46.

48

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 49. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake, induced by the modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 45, after 6 hours.

Figure 50. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake, induced by the modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 46, after 6 hours.

49

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 51. Effect of 0.7m drop (left) and 0.7m rising (right) of the overall lake water level. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.

6.3 Effect of emergent vegetation cover


In the case with reed cover (Fig. 54-55) what is new is the development of slow return currents inside the reed, given high hydraulic resistance and no wind shear there.

Figure 52. Bottom topography of the sample lake with reed covered shallow Western littoral zone, displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.

50

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 53. Effect of the reed cover. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW (left) and SE (right) wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.

6.4 Effect of large scale dredging


The case with dredging is also instructive (Fig. 54-55) by showing the strong influence of even confined deep zones on counter-current development. Here even momentum advection plays a significant role, moreover vorticity strengthening due to deepening whereas weakening due to moving toward shallower areas can also be seen at the two end-regions of the dredging.

Figure 54. Bottom topography of the sample lake with dredging in the Western littoral zone, displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.

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Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 55. Effect of the dredging. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW (left) and SE (right) wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.

Figure 56. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns induced in the presence of dredging (left) and reed cover (right) by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.

52

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 57. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake in flow induced by IBL-dependent wind shear stress field, W10=10m/s NW, land roughness height 0.15m. State after 6 hours in dredged (left) and reed-covered (right) conditions.

For NW wind, the sense of circulation in the reed-covered and dredged cases is alike, but velocities differ a lot, for obvious reasons. This feature is made even more visible by using the residence time simulation as water exchange indicator.

7 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Velence


Lake Velence is another good example of shallow, largely reed-covered lakes. It is characterised by very uniform bathymetry both in the pelagic and the reed covered zone, 2 and 0.5 m deep on average, respectively. The main reason for that lays in the fact that in the late seventies large scale dredging were performed in order to create spacious open areas, to prevent the reed from overgrowth, and to make a 4-5 m deep rowing track in a near shore area. Given no considerable hydrodynamic exploration in the past, a two years programme was performed in 1998-99 first to collect baseline wind and hydrodynamic information about the lake, second to detect possible unfavourable tendencies in the existing man-made conditions.

7.1 Local wind conditions


As in most of Hungary, air motions at the lake are dominated by cyclones coming from NW direction. A typical directional statistics is given in Fig. 58, representing the distributions of a 5 weeks period. The lake is surrounded by hills on the Northern side, whereas the Southern shore is very flat. The shore is in general rather built up, with high, loosely spaced trees. It implies somewhat higher land surface roughness height than the one found at Lake Fert. In the research programme wind was measured at the Southwest shore, at 10 m standard height. Since in prevailing condition wind arrives there over large reed stands with little open water interrupting it, raw data were used without modification as shoreline values. The results 53

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

of two measurement phases out of the four are briefly presented here, focusing on the large central area (Fig. 59) as well as on the region of the rowing track (Fig. 62).

Figure 58. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured at the lake between 16 October 23 November, 1998.

7.2 Analysis of the measurements


In the first measurement programme attention was paid to deploy instruments all over the central bay in order to detect currents developing both in strong wind exposure and in sheltered conditions. The Acoustic-Doppler sensor of the RCM9 current meters were all operated half a meter above the bottom, due to the standard bottom deployment mode. The vector time series measured in the strongest storm are displayed in Fig. 60. As is seen, stable intervals of the wind are characterised by well-developed aperiodic currents, which then respond quite fast to large-scale changes in the wind vector. Seiche compounds, not presented here did not prove significant, due first of all the damping, rather then reflecting effect of the reed.

Figure 59. Measurement sites in 1998. Wind measured at the SW shore.

54

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

1998 Autumn Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Wind: Agrd Water depth, m 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.0 Sensor depth, m 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 Height: 10.0 Instrument type RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 Standard Met.

Figure 60. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

55

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

A typical snapshot of the prevailing pattern is given in Fig. 61. Note that in the absence of significant depth gradients the dominating factor is certainly the curl of the wind shear stress vector field because of which e.g. Site 4 falls into the zone of strong return flows.

Figure 61. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/18/1998 10:00. Wind vector is at the measurement site.

Figure 62. Measurement sites in 1999. Wind measured as in1998.

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Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

The layout of the sites in 1999 is given in Fig. 62. As was expected, strong countercurrents dominate the dredged area even for two reasons: due to the large depth and due to the sheltered, short fetch conditions in the prevailing winds. As can be seen in the figure and in the table below, we were going to measure the velocity even in two layers there, but unfortunately one of the instruments were touched by anglers and stopped working correctly. Fig. 63 shows the measured vector time series of one particular W-NW wind event. Even moderate wind could generate locally significant currents, not to mention Site 22 where the narrow exit cross-section considerably speeds up the flow as seen in Fig. 64. An instructive case is given in Fig. 65, with sudden in the wind direction in the last third of the period. The response of the deep area is very sharp as soon as the wind compound parallel to the rowing track changes sign (unfortunately the other instruments had been collected by that time). The two states are well represented in Fig. 66 and 67. 1999 Autumn Site No. 18. 19. 21. 22. Wind: Agrd Water depth, m 1.7 3.1 4.0 2.0 1.8 Sensor depth, m 1.2 2.6 2.5 1.5 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 Standard Met.

Figure 63. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

57

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 64. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 10/27/1999 12:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.

Figure 65. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

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Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 66. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/19/1999 19:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.

Figure 67. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/20/1999 8:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.

59

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

7.3 Flow model calibration and verification


The depth-integrated flow model was adapted on a 100 m cell size grid to calculate the circulation patterns (Fig. 68-69) Note that on the grid the lake is rotated clockwise by some 30. Running the IBL-model with 0.2 m land roughness height and smoothness parameters used at Lake Fert resulted in the best fit with measurements. Nevertheless, first let us take a look at the flow field obtained by using uniform wind shear stress field. As can be seen in Fig. 70, it results in wrong prediction in most of the central area, moreover, the velocities are too low, which in themselves could be of course cured by increasing the drag coefficient. In turn, the IBL-driven model, as shown in Fig. 71 obtained good fitting. To model the wind situation seen in Fig. 66, NNE wind direction was also applied inducing a flow pattern given in Fig. 72. The strong velocities at the rowing track matching the measurement are visible. Unsteady simulations were also carried out to check the applicability of the overall model approach in dynamic conditions. The 1998 storm presented earlier was used as calibration data set. Fig. 73 shows both the measured and calculated time series for roughness height of 0.2 m. Taking into account the fact that the calculations were depth-integrated, whereas the measurements sampled only a rather thin, though hopefully representative layer, not only the directional, but even the velocity magnitude fitting is satisfactory. For completeness, Fig. 74 shows a representative state of the lake both as was measured and modelled. In fact, we believe the good fitting is first of all due to the small lake size, the absence of extended bottom slopes, and to the fact that the IBL-based wind field is characterised by strong curl just at that length scale, thus making the system behaviour very stiff.

Figure 68. Bottom topography and reed cover of the lake displayed on the 100 m cell size finite difference grid.

60

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 69. Zooming in on the central pelagic area.

Figure 70. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=9m/s NW wind. Highest velocities in the central basin around 4 cm/s.

61

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 71. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NW wind and 0.2 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the central basin around 7 cm/s.

Figure 72. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NNE wind and 0.2 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the central basin around 10 cm/s.

62

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 73. Measured and modelled (indicated with sz) flow vector time series of the calibration event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

63

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 74. Typical snapshot of the measured (black) and modelled (grey) flow pattern on 11/18/1998 8:00. Wind vector seen where it was measured.

8 Wind-induced circulations in the Western part of Lake Balaton


Lake Balaton with its horizontal size, elongated shape, with the hilly relief on its upwind side and with its bathymetry (Fig. 75) certainly differs from the two previously presented lakes, however, still presents most of the hydrodynamic features identified earlier.

Figure 75. difference grid.

Lake Balaton bottom topography, reconstructed on the 333m cell size finite

As the first study lake in Hungary in the Finnish-Hungarian research cooperation framework, it has been thoroughly investigated both by field measurement and numerical modelling. Instead of a longish historical overview let us focus here on the main achievements 64

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

of the projects carried out in the second half of the nineties in 1997-98, followed closely by suspended sediment transport and bed morphology modelling in 1998-99. The latter formed considerable part of the scientific support to decision making on thin-layer dredging strategies in the West-most bay of the lake.

8.1 Field measurement campaigns in the late nineties


The main parameters and general layout of the three schemes performed in 1998-99 are given in Fig. 76-78 and in the corresponding tables. As can be seen, considerable overlapping was applied with the intention of tailoring patterns induced by similar winds though not simultaneously. At places measurements were taken in several (2-3) depth in the same vertical in order to capture the dynamics of the velocity profile and explore three- versus twodimensionality in the given conditions. Wind was measured at one site only, though over the lake, attached to a kind of master station where currents were usually measured at several depths. Turbidity was also measured in most cases and utilised then in the dredging-related sediment transport modelling phase.

Figure 76. Measurement sites in 1997 Spring. Wind measured at Site 2 over the lake. (shifted to 2W when displayed).

Site No. 21 22 3 4. 5. Wind: 2.

Water depth, m 2.6 2.7 2.5 2.7 3.0 1.8

Sensor depth, m 2.1 1.0 2.0 2.2 1.5 Height: 3.0 65

Instrument type RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 RCM9 RCM4S Standard Aanderaa

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 77. Measurement sites in 1997 Autumn. Wind measured at Site 6 over the lake (shifted to 6W when displayed).

Site No. 2. 6/1. 6/2. 6/3. 7. Wind: 6.

Water depth, m 2.4 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 1.8

Sensor depth, m 1.9 0.8 1.8 2.3 2.1 Height: 3.0

Instrument type RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 RCM9 Standard Aanderaa

66

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 78. Measurement sites in 1998 Spring. Wind measured at Site 10 over the lake (shifted to 10W when displayed).

Site No. 2. 4. 8. 9. 10/1. 10/2. Wind: 10.

Water depth, m 2.6 2.5 3.7 3.9 3.2 3.2 3.2

Sensor depth, m 2.1 2.0 3.2 3.4 1.2 2.7 Height: 2.5

Instrument type DCS 3500 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 Standard Aanderaa

67

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

8.2 Wind conditions in the study region


Wind conditions are well characterised by the directional distribution given in Fig. 79. NNW is definitely prevailing with SW far at the second place. It follows from the relief seen in Fig. 80 that the wind field is influenced by large-scale topographic features, affecting the direction by 10-20 at places. A research project to couple terrain, wind waves and currents has just started to explain more these variations. As has long been known to local people, NNW windstorms are considerably stronger at the Southern shore after having crossed the lake, a clear indication of the presence of IBL development. In fact the IBL-approach was adopted also here and indirectly verified by the fact, that reasonable matching between measured and calculated circulation patterns was found.

Figure 79. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured over the lake between 26 April 6 June, 1997.

Figure 80. Shaded relief around the lake, based on the 200 m cell size digital terrain model.

8.3 Flow conditions


Considered in their overall complexity, flow conditions and their impact on mixing are well represented in Fig. 81, by the plume of a small inflow to a bay. Moderate to strong, long duration winds, often observed in the region can, nevertheless, induce and maintain clear 68

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

circulation patterns which play an important role in the water exchange and sediment transport processes, thus indirectly also influencing the water quality of the lake.

Figure 81. Aerial photo of a bay showing the reed belt and the brownish plume of a small tributary.

8.3.1 Analysis of the simultaneous wind and flow measurements


A typical, one and half a day long storm is presented form the 1997 Spring measurement period. With gentle low-pass filtering the lake still shows most of its oscillatory and circulatory dynamics (Fig. 82), but removing then velocity fluctuations with less than 3 hours time period results in a strongly circulatory remaining part, influenced seemingly by the synoptic scale wind changes only (Fig. 83). The band-pass filtered compound is also interesting, as it presents large amplitude oscillation in the vicinity of local nodes, whereas often insignificant oscillatory character far from them. These features come out clearly also in the directional distributions seen in Fig. 84. A similar event was chosen from the Autumn period with one overlapping point, furthermore, with triple-layer measurements at Site 6 (Fig. 85-87). When local seiches are removed from the time series, it comes out that the direction within the profile does not deviate very much. Being in a counter-current zone, it presents the strongest velocities in the middle point whereas closer to the boundaries the flow is slowed down. The directional statistics is shown in Fig. 87, in which the aperiodic and periodic character of the separated compounds is clearly seen. The vector time series of the prevailing event taken as example from 1998 is given in Fig. 88. The fairly uniform behavior of the flow at Site 10 along the vertical holds all over the event. The typical spatial structure is represented in Fig. 89. Note that in most cases strong counter-currents developed whenever a site happened to fall into upwind zone near the shore. In fact, the actual status of the wind direction and shoreline orientation seems to have a great influence on the circulation pattern, which again can be reasonably explained by the IBL-development over the lake. 69

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 82. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1997 Spring. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

Figure 83. Same as in Fig. 82, but fluctuations with less than 3 hours time period removed.

70

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 84. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 82-83. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-3 hours periodicity band retained.

71

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 85. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1997 Autumn. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

Figure 86. Same as in Fig. 86, but fluctuations with less than 3 hours time period removed.

72

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 87. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 86. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-3 hours periodicity band retained.

73

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 88. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1998 Spring. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.

Figure 89. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 5/5/1998 3:00. Wind vector shifted from 10 to 10W to be distinguishable.

74

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8.3.2 Modelling the prevailing circulation patterns


The adaptation of the depth-integrated flow model supplied with the IBL-based wind shear stress approximation was carried out also for this lake. The grid on which the finite difference solution was looked for had 333 m cell size, providing sufficient resolution both for the wind and the flow calculation (Fig. 92). To show the differences, flow patterns modelled both in uniform and IBL-dependent wind shear stress conditions are given (Fig. 93 and 94). In the IBL calculation finally 0.4 m roughness height was assumed, appearing as best compromise to fit measured patterns. The differences are very significant on the upwind side influencing then of course the whole area to some extent. The advective velocities obtained with the simplistic uniform wind are in large zones opposite to what were measured and reproduced by the improved external forcing estimation. This modelling achievement was then widely utilised in the suspended sediment transport modelling phase.

Figure 90. Zooming in on the West-most study area of the lake, as seen based on the 333 m cell size finite difference grid.

75

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 91. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the lake, corresponding to W10=10m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities are around 12 cm/s.

Figure 92. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NNW wind and 0.4 m roughness height at the upwind shoreline. Highest velocities are around 12 cm/s.

76

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

9 Suspended sediment transport modelling in lake Balaton


High nutrient supply from stirred up sediment grains as internal load may from time to time result in poor water quality especially in the Western part of the lake. One of the ways to improve the conditions is to remove the upper-most polluted bed layer by dredging. It has bee the main reason to launch the hydrodynamic research project and has led to utilise hydrodynamics in creating firm basis for understanding and predicting bottom sediment dynamics. In fact, information on the hydro- and sediment dynamics as the lake response to the prevailing wind is most essential when planning and performing dredging. In the sediment transport research phase of the research turbidity data were also analysed in addition to wind and flow data. First turbidity sensors were calibrated against lake bed sediment in lab conditions then were jointly used to estimate suspended sediment mass fluxes, along with performing all the directional statistical analysis applied also for the flow data. Samples were analysed to estimate the grain size distribution in different parts of the lake bottom and the water body. A number of sediment traps facilitated to determine vertical sediment fluxes in prevailing wind conditions. The analyses showed that the bottom sediment presents the character of cohesive mud due to the large amount of fines, mainly clay. Cohesive sediments, especially when being subject to consolidation and fluidisation need special care both in analysis and modelling. Parallel to data analysis, a multi-fraction suspended sediment transport model has been developed to handle the different ranges of the grain size distribution separately rather than looking for one single, a kind of equivalent diameter often hopeless to represent the whole spectra. The idea was to try to reproduce the selective bottom erosion and deposition processes resulting then in large irregularities in the bottom sediment distribution. To identify zones with various sediment dynamics parameter a detailed penetrometer surveying of the study are was carry out (Fig. 93). The governing equation for the C concentration of the ith fraction including advection, dispersion, bed erosion by resuspension and deposition retains the conventional form of the general transport equation as follows:

(hCi ) (hUCi ) (hVCi ) C C = + hDxx i + hD xy i t x y x x x y C C + hD yx i + hD yy i + S e,i S d ,i y x y y

(67)

The key to the realistic description of the processes is the proper formulation and parameterisation of the erosion and deposition terms. As source terms the following formulae were adopted:

e,i :

S Ci = K e ,i ( e ,i ) = e ,i h t

Sd ,i Ci 2ws ,i = 1 d ,i : h Ci = h t d ,i

(68)

It was assumed, however, that both processes might occur at the same time, the sum of which gives then the instantaneous state of the suspended sediment balance. In equilibrium it is written as follows: 77

Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

(69) 2 ws , i 1 d ,i Once the time variation of the concentration is known the local bed change can be calculated based on the sediment particle density and bulk porosity by , (70)

C eq ,i =

K e ,i h( e ,i )

and the total rate of change can be obtained by summing all the fractions treated separately. The mathematical model outlined above was solved numerically by appropriate finite difference method on the grid identical to the one used in the flow model. Erosion and settling were parameterised based on the result of the field and lab analysis of the bottom sediment. A tri-fraction version seemed to capture reasonably the main features. Calibration was performed against selected measured suspended sediment concentration time series, analysed earlier. Results of modelling a 3 weeks period can be seen in Fig. 94. The model was used for predicting bed changes for longer scenarios as well. Dredging alternatives were also built into the input data and long-term local and bay-wide impact was estimated, along with the rate of refilling of newly dredged areas as seen e.g. in Fig. 95. Last we underline the importance of reasonable approximation of the bottom shear stress distribution, as a driving force of the fluxes there. As was mentioned already in the introduction, in shallow waters the main factors in that are the wind-induced waves and the resulting wave-induced shear stress at the bottom. In the present model the so-called SPM (Shore Protection Manual) shallow water wave formulae proved acceptable to do that job, providing the significant wave height in terms of the wind speed, fetch and local depth (see e.g. Kang et al., 1982).

Figure 93. Survey of the bottom surface mud layer.

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Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

Figure 94. Multi-fraction suspended sediment model calibration period.

Figure 95. Refilling process of newly dredged areas. Modelled monthly bed changes expressed for two different bulk dry densities 200 and 1300 kg/m3, representing fluidised and consolidated states.

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Shallow Lake Hydrodynamics

10 On the applicability for other shallow lakes


Below a list of topics in which the methods and results presented in the present Notes are thought to be applicable in the flow and sediment transport modelling of shallow lakes are given. Selecting wind and flow velocity measurements sites providing appropriate model wind input and flow calibration data. Site selection to capture seiche, lake-wide circulations and local features. Vector time series analysis of wind and flow velocity data including time series representation, directional statistics, low-, band- and high pass filtering as well as spectral analysis. Decomposition of flow velocity data to oscillatory and circulatory elements. Reconstruction of wind speed profile over the lake based on data from arbitrary measurement height and local estimation of surface wind shear stress Wind speed and surface wind shear stress field estimation based on internal boundary layer development principles. Order of magnitude analysis of the impact of lake water-level changes on the windinduced circulation patterns. Scaling of wind shear stress and hydraulic resistance in the presence of emergent vegetation. Evaluation of water exchange mechanisms between characteristic lake sub-regions by residence time simulation. Wind induced wave field and wave-induced bottom shear stress calculation for estimating sediment mass fluxes at the lakebed. Parameterisation of sediment transport models for various lakebed compositions. Impact assessment of dredging.

11 Acknowledgements
This work was part of the project No. T030792 and T034556 supported by the National Scientific Research Fund of Hungary.

12 References and relevant literature


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