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SHALLOW LAKE HYDRODYNAMICS Theory, measurement and numerical model applications A Hungarian-Finnish experience
Budapest, 2006
SHALLOW LAKE HYDRODYNAMICS Theory, measurement and numerical model applications Author: Jnos Jzsa Budapest, 2006 Mundus-Euroaquae lecture notes Keywords Shallow lake, air-water interaction, wind-induced circulation, water exchange, numerical modelling, field measurements Contact details Budapest University of Technology and Economics Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering Megyetem rkp 3., K mf. 4. H-1111 Budapest HUNGARY Tel: +36 1 463-1164 Web: www.vit.bme.hu E-mail: jozsa@vit.bme.hu Fax: +36 1 463-1879
Table of contents
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Characteristic water motions in shallow lakes ................................................................. 1 1.2 On the role of wind-induced circulatory flows ................................................................ 2 1.3 The Hungarian shallow lakes as case studies ................................................................... 2 1.4 Main research tools........................................................................................................... 3 1.4.1 Field measurements .................................................................................................. 3 1.4.2 Analysis of the field data.......................................................................................... 4 1.4.3 Mathematical description and numerical modelling of the processes...................... 4 1.4.4 Selecting prevailing events....................................................................................... 4 1.4.5 Model calibration and verification for prevailing events ......................................... 4 1.4.6 Modelling experiments............................................................................................. 4 1.5 Outline of the present Notes ............................................................................................. 4 2 Air-water interaction in lake environment.............................................................................. 5 2.1 Near-surface wind and wind shear stress conditions........................................................ 6 2.1.1 Effect of the lake size, surrounding topography and land roughness....................... 6 2.1.2 Roughness conditions on the lake surface................................................................ 6 2.1.3 Near-surface wind profile and the aerodynamic drag .............................................. 7 2.1.4 Momentum exchange at the surface: the wind shear stress...................................... 8 2.1.5 Effect of an abrupt change in surface roughness: development of the internal boundary layer ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Coupled modelling of the internal boundary layer and the surface wind shear stress ..... 9 3 Mathematical description of wind-induced lake flows......................................................... 13 3.1 Three-dimensional governing equations ........................................................................ 13 3.2 Identifying the shallow water conditions ....................................................................... 15 3.3 Depth-integrated approach ............................................................................................. 16 3.4 Three-dimensional approach with analytical solution of the velocity profile................ 17 3.5 Governing equation in vorticity form............................................................................. 17 3.6 Analysis of the vorticity balance .................................................................................... 18 3.6.1 Vorticity advection and dispersion......................................................................... 18 3.6.2 Vorticity sources..................................................................................................... 18 3.6.3 Vorticity sinks ........................................................................................................ 19 3.6.4 Relative weight of the source terms and their role in inducing circulations .......... 19 3.7 Depth-integrated governing equations ........................................................................... 19 3.8 Transport modelling of water exchange processes......................................................... 20 3.8.1 Water exchange as water mass advection-dispersion............................................. 20 3.8.2 Water exchange characterised as the evolution of the mean residence time field 20 3.8.3 Residence time field decomposition into contributions of sub-domains................ 20 3.8.4 Applied numerical transport model ........................................................................ 21 4 Field measurement of wind-induced flows........................................................................... 21 4.1 Applied tools, measuring and deploying principles ....................................................... 21 4.2 Data processing and analysis.......................................................................................... 24 4.2.1 Vector-time series representation ........................................................................... 24 4.2.2 Directional statistics ............................................................................................... 24 4.2.3 Digital filtering of the time series........................................................................... 24 5 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Fert (Neusiedl) ........................................................... 25 i
5.1 Progress in field measurements ...................................................................................... 26 5.2 Wind conditions.............................................................................................................. 27 5.2.1 Prevailing winds ..................................................................................................... 27 5.2.2 Investigation of the near-surface wind conditions in a bay.................................... 27 5.2.3 Calibration and verification of the surface wind shear stress model...................... 28 5.3 Wind-induced flows ....................................................................................................... 30 5.3.1 Prevailing circulation patterns in the study bay ..................................................... 30 5.3.2 Model calibration for prevailing circulation patterns............................................. 36 5.3.3 Hydrodynamic exploration of the Northern pelagic area ....................................... 39 5.3.4 Water exchange mechanisms as a combination of the seiche and circulations...... 44 Model investigations in a fictitious sample lake................................................................... 44 6.1 Aims of the investigations .............................................................................................. 44 6.2 Joint effect of the depth and wind shear stress distribution............................................ 44 6.3 Effect of emergent vegetation cover............................................................................... 50 6.4 Effect of large scale dredging......................................................................................... 51 Wind-induced circulations in Lake Velence......................................................................... 53 7.1 Local wind conditions .................................................................................................... 53 7.2 Analysis of the measurements ........................................................................................ 54 7.3 Flow model calibration and verification......................................................................... 60 Wind-induced circulations in the Western part of Lake Balaton ......................................... 64 8.1 Field measurement campaigns in the late nineties ......................................................... 65 8.2 Wind conditions in the study region............................................................................... 68 8.3 Flow conditions .............................................................................................................. 68 8.3.1 Analysis of the simultaneous wind and flow measurements.................................. 69 8.3.2 Modelling the prevailing circulation patterns......................................................... 75 Suspended sediment transport modelling in lake Balaton.................................................... 77
10 On the applicability for other shallow lakes ......................................................................... 80 11 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 80 12 References and relevant literature ........................................................................................ 80
ii
1 Introduction
Shallow lakes have recently received enhanced attention all over the world. Their unique value and multi-purpose utility have been more and more recognised which have led then to misusing a number of them, thus worsening their ecological state even to an alarming extent at places. Furthermore, the recent changes in the global climate or, at least the fact that extremes seem to grow, changed also the boundary conditions for these vulnerable water bodies. In spite if this, lake studies are still quite moderately financed compared to maritime research, and often focuse on deep lakes, only. When trying to adapt the result obtained in deep water lake or shallow coastal seas, one has to cope, nevertheless, with a number of problems due to the differences in the prevailing time and space scales found in shallow lakes. In fact, shallow lakes have got their own features and need special research and management methodology. In Hungary, situated in the middle of the rather flat Carpathian Basin with no direct access to the sea, besides the large rivers shallow lakes, first of all Lake Balaton, the largest shallow lake in Central-Europe, and Lake Fert (Neusiedler See in German) the West-most large steppe lake in the continent are far the most important surface waters. In addition to the traditional hydro-meteorological observations, hydrodynamic explorations started as early as the sixties, first investigating the wind-induced seiche motion and looking for possible reasons for the unfavourable silting up in some parts of the lakes. Field measurement campaigns carried out in the sixties, seventies and early eighties provided significant results except for the water currents on which data with only very limited value could be collected due to lacking instrumentation. This was an obstacle for a while also for validating numerical flow models developed since the mid-eighties. Parallel to this in Finland, the country of thousand lakes, in the late seventies recording current meters, meant originally for sea conditions, were successfully applied also in shallow lakes, which gave a significant impulse to the lake hydrodynamics research there, including its multidimensional numerical modelling. In fact, good quality calibration data proved vital for reliable model parameterisation. In order to combine shallow lake research efforts of the two countries a bilateral cooperation framework was established in the mid-eighties, leading to a number of fruitful joint research programs and methodological development in both countries. The present Notes attempt to give an insight into the achievements in theory, measurements and numerical modelling related to the Hungarian lakes studied in the framework of the cooperation, discussing more in details the ones with applicability for other shallow lake hydrodynamic, sediment transport and water quality studies.
it. As another consequence of shallowness, wind-induced turbulence can easily destroy temperature stratification thus making the lake homogenous.
Figure 1. Hungary in the Carpathian Basin. Lake Balaton in Mid-West, Lake Fert in North-west, Lake Velence somewhat to the East-Northeast from Balaton.
Much smaller in total surface but covered by reed even in relatively greater extent, Lake Velence with its 2 m average depth is the third in the series that has been thoroughly investigated from hydrodynamic point of view. As the lakebed and the reed cover were significantly reshaped by large scale dredging in the late seventies, it has recently become necessary to identify the main hydrodynamic features of the lake after 20 years. The occasional adverse effects, e.g. unfavourable siltation at places, were also considered in order to support possible future remedial works. The above mentioned three lakes have served as excellent case studies providing both lakespecific features and general conclusions on shallow lakes. In fact, the conditions made it possible to carry out useful cross-verifications especially as far as the new findings were concerned. Comparisons with similar cases from abroad (Finland, China and Germany) further enhanced the validation of the general applicability (Sarkkula et al., 1991; Jinxiu et al, 1999; Podsetchine and Schernewski, 1999).
speed variation along the fetch, water exchange at the interface zone of adjacent bays, or the circulation structure in near-shore regions. In all the research projects the up-to-date instrumentation provided by Aanderaa Instruments, Norway was utilised. In fact, their wind station, propeller as well as AcousticDoppler type current meters, and optical turbidity sensors have proved very robust tools in most situations. Nevertheless, in order to apply them in the given shallow (typically from 1 to 4 m) conditions, special deploying techniques had to be developed.
Once the main characteristics of the external driving force are given, the governing equations of the water flows are presented. Special interest is paid to the vorticity form of the shallow water equations and the analysis of the various terms playing the role of vorticity sources and sinks in the system. This approach facilitates to identify the main factors and estimate their weight in generating advective circulation patterns. As information gained from field measurements has been so vital in all the research projects, separate chapters are devoted to present the main findings in the three case study lakes. However, a special chapter on the most relevant results of a fictitious lake is inserted after the one on Lake Fert, in order to give a systematic presentation of the most important shallow lake features in simplified conditions. In order to give a typical example on the utility of hydrodynamics research, at last the main principles of the suspended sediment transport modelling of Lake Balaton are given along with the application to planning thin-layer dredging in one part of the lake. Finally a set of recommendations on possible utilisation of the achievements in other shallow lake studies is given, along with the need for field data and numerical models for reasonable adaptation in the local conditions. The Notes are supplemented with a representative, though not complete selection of literature relevant to wind-driven shallow lake hydrodynamics in general and to the various sub-topics in particular.
2.1.1 Effect of the lake size, surrounding topography and land roughness
Some of the lakes are horizontally large enough to give room to the development of light and moderate winds or short duration storms with significant local differences. There are, however, few lakes large enough to feel the synoptic-scale spatial structure of atmospheric cyclones. As another source of irregularity, large scale topographic features upstream of a lake can also result in spatially varying wind field over the lake and can have occasionally significant impact on shaping the circulation patterns, as have been recognised in several cases. (Shanahan et al., 1986; Jzsa et al., 1990; Jinxiu et al., 1999). Its reasonable estimation needs either dense enough wind measurement network, preferably coupled then with some sort of mezo-scale atmospheric boundary layer model of appropriate vertical and horizontal resolution. However, measurements are seldom dense enough in space to form a firm basis for wind field reconstruction in themselves, moreover, there still seems to be a gap to fill in between numerical modelling capability of small scale computational fluid dynamics problems and large, synoptic scale atmospheric modelling. In any case, near the surface it is primarily the upwind land roughness conditions that determine the vertical structure of the horizontal wind speed. It is of course strongly related to the land use in the surroundings. In case of e.g. more or less homogeneous vegetation cover the wind profile is in equilibrium, which is then severely disturbed by the abrupt change in the surface roughness conditions at the shoreline. In fact, even the most rough-looking water surface is several orders of magnitude smoother in an aerodynamic sense than a typical land surface. This sudden change in the lower boundary conditions for the airflow results in the development of a new, so-called internal boundary layer, the height of which grows along the fetch following rather simple semi-empirical relationships. Within the IBL the well-known logarithmic distribution of the wind speed still holds, whereas outside this layer the profile is undisturbed and preserves its over-land features. However, the momentum flux from air to water is governed by the shear stress at the bottom of the IBL that is at the lake surface. It will be shown that provided the size of the lake in the prevailing wind direction is in the order of less than say 20 km, the IBL-based estimation in thermally neutral, nearly stabilised, moderate and strong winds can explain quite a large part of the wind shear stress distribution.
speed. In the upper range, the so-called roughness height z 0 due mainly to the shorter waves on the lake surface can be considered simply as
z0 = W2 , g
(1)
providing the well-known, widely used Charnock-formula, with as a coupling parameter. Though considered as a parameter to be calibrated, reasonable results have been widely obtained with a value of 0.0185 given by Wu (1982). Recently, a lot of effort have been also put into linking the aerodynamic roughness height more directly to the wave conditions, furthermore, identifying the role of wave stress and turbulent stress in the total stress, but an overall formula has not come out to date (see e.g. Donelan 1998; Taylor and Yelland, 2001).
ln
z , z0
(2)
where is the von Krmn constant equal to 0.4. In fact, it starts with zero speed at the roughness height with sharp initial increase, which becomes then more and more gentle with height. Note that this relationship makes it possible to determine both the roughness height and the friction velocity from wind speed measurements taken in one vertical at two different heights. The ratio of the square of the friction velocity and that of the wind speed at z is known as the aerodynamic drag c z corresponding to the given height (see e.g. Plate and Wengefeld, 1979; Graf and Prost, 1979; Stull, 1991). Using (1) and (2) it is expressed as W2 2 2 . (3) = = 2 Wz2 z 2 zg ln ln W 2 z 0 The customary wind measurement height is usually 10 m for which the drag formula, combining (1), (2) and (3) is cz =
W2 2 2 2 , (4) = = = 2 2 W10 10 2 10 g 2 10 g ln ln ln W 2 z c W 2 0 10 10 Collecting and analysing a number of data from various sources, Wu managed to derive the following linear relationship between the wind at 10 m and the corresponding drag coefficient, proved reasonable from breeze to hurricane (see e.g. Wu, 1982): c10 =
(5)
Similar formulae have been derived by a number of researchers with slight differences in the empirical coefficients.
7
s , a
(6)
which by definition links the friction velocity to the surface wind shear stress s and air density a , a series of formulae can be set up, all expressing the shear stress in various combination as follows: (7) 10 10 g ln ln z W 2 0 Note that by using (1), (2), (5) and (6) the whole set of parameters (friction velocity, roughness height, drag coefficient), finally the wind shear stress and the wind profile itself can be determined in an iterative way, based on wind speed measurements taken at one single, arbitrary, though representative height, provided the boundary layer structure above the lake is developed at least as high as the measurement height. In other words, we are in principle free to choose the anemometer height, which is a great help in most field conditions, when facing severe deploying constraints, or if significant, though slow water level changes occur. Once the wind speed and the drag coefficients are determined, the local specific value of the rate of work of the wind on unit water surface area can be given as (West et al., 2000)
2 2 s = aW2 = a c10W10 = a
2 W10 = l 2
2 W10 .
3 E s = a c10W10 .
(8)
If these parameters are known not only locally but all over the lake based on measurements or some functional expansion, the total available work per unit time can be obtained by integrating the specific values over the entire lake surface A as
E s ,t = E s d A .
( A)
(9)
In case the lake is partly vegetated and the emergent vegetation covers significant part of the lake the above mentioned work input is reduced accordingly. Of course the vegetation, either patchy or not, floating on the surface or even if somewhat submerged, can modify the bulk surface roughness conditions, consequently the wind profile and finally the effective wind shear stress acting on the water surface as well.
2.1.5 Effect of an abrupt change in surface roughness: development of the internal boundary layer
As was described earlier, the abrupt change in the aerodynamic roughness conditions at the lakeshore result in an IBL development downwind on the lake. Such phenomena are well known and often detected in the lower part of the atmospheric boundary layer. The name IBL is usually retained for boundary layer developing due to mechanical turbulence whereas the one developing due to temperature changes is called thermal boundary layer. Till very recently, the use of IBL-based wind, wind stress and energy estimations in lake environment have been restricted to determine turbulent energy production rate for vertical temperature stratification calculations in deep lakes, improve humidity and evaporation flux calculations, or to improve wind input for surface wave modelling, only.
In the Finnish-Hungarian lake research studies reported here, even if wind was measured often at one single site, detailed flow measurements could indirectly indicate that there spatial structure must be significantly influenced by fetch-dependent wind shear stress variation. In fact, at the typical horizontal length scale of the study lakes fetch-unlimited conditions can hardly be found. It is the case with the IBL development over the lake too in stabilized, neutral conditions, resulting in a continuous speed-up of the wind at given height. As will be seen, however, the the strongest growth rate is found at the initial part, which becomes then asymptotically more and more gentle. As will be also made clear, for a given wind direction this fetch-aligned feature depends mainly on the characteristic land surface roughness and the wind speed, the former being far the most important parameter to calibrate. Though thermal effects can significantly modify the picture, in most of our selected events the conditions were (maybe due to the efficient mixing capacity of the high wind speed) nearly neutral and the mechanically generated IBL alone could explain most of the observed changes. Following the general description given by Taylor and Lee (1984), the IBL height b starts to develop at the shoreline in the section of the abrupt roughness change with an initial thickness
b (0) = z 0, 2 ,
(10)
equal to that of the roughness height z 0, 2 of the lake water surface. Its development is governed mainly by two parameters, the fetch F and the lake surface roughness height as
F b (F ) = 0,75 z 0, 2 (11) z , 0, 2 the roughness being also a function of the fetch. As a result of this gradual change, the vertical profile of the horizontal wind speed consists of two parts: outside the IBL the profile is still assumed to be identical with that given at the shoreline at height z over the land, simply expressed by
0 ,8
b (F ) z :
Wz (F ) = Wz (0) ,
z
(12)
whereas within the IBL the wind speed is determined by the formula
b (F ) > z : Wz (F ) = Wz (0)
ln
z 0, 2 z 0,1 . b (F ) z ln ln z 0,1 z 0, 2
ln
b (F )
(13)
Thus the profile remains logarithmic by nature, however, its actual shape is calculated by two subsequent transformations.
2.2 Coupled modelling of the internal boundary layer and the surface wind shear stress
A coupling between the IBL development and surface wind shear stress estimation can be established if the Charnock-formula for estimating the local lake surface roughness is introduced in the algorithm in an iterative way. It means to solve the IBL and surface roughness height development along the fetch given the wind speed, its measurement height (the so-called anemometer height) over the land and the land roughness height. Since the lake
roughness calculation requires the wind speed at 10 m, an initial transformation is needed if wind data happen to be available at a height different from that as follows: 10 z 0,1 . W10 (0) = Wza (0) za ln z 0,1 ln
(14)
Using (1), (5) and (6) tailored to the IBL formulae (11) and (13) a wind speed equal to W10 (F ) = W10 (0) ln
10 b (F ) ln ln z 0,1 z 0, 2 (F )
(F ) 10 ln b z 0,1 z 0 , 2 (F )
(15)
can be obtained iteratively, which gives then the actual speed in case
b (F ) > 10 : b (F ) 10 :
(16)
whereas no change occurs in case (17) A set of longitudinal profiles is given below on the fetch- and wind speed-dependent behaviour of the parameters. A typical range of wind speed capable to induce significant water motion was used and the first 2 km of the fetch was considered. The roughness height of the upwind land was set to 0.15 m, a verified characteristic value for Lake Fert, as will be seen later. Note especially the longitudinal wind and shear stress profile, moreover its significant increase due to enhanced 0.4 m roughness, representing high (but not densely packed) forest.
100
90
80
70
50
40
30
20
10
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 2. Development of the internal boundary layer over the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.
10
0.001
0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0005
0.0004
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 3. Roughness height of the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.
0.002
0.0018
0.0016
0.0014
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 4. Aerodynamic drag coefficient along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.
11
14
13
12
10
5 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 5. Wind speed at 10 m height above the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15 m.
0.7
0.6
0.5
f , [Pa]
0.2 0.1 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 6. Wind shear stress at the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.15m.
12
0.6
0.5
f , [Pa]
0.2 0.1 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 F , [m] 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 7. Wind shear stress at the water surface along the fetch for various offshore wind speeds at the shoreline, land roughness equal to 0.4 m.
g=
1 p . z
(21)
where x, y and z are Cartesian space coordinates, u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z-direction, p is pressure, is water density and f is the Coriolis coefficient due to the earth rotation. Given that there is at least an order of magnitude difference between the horizontal and vertical velocity magnitudes, after appropriate time-averaging, adopting the Boussinesq approximation for turbulent momentum exchange and introducing the divergence operator = , x y (22)
in the horizontal plane only, the momentum equations from now on for the time-averaged variables can be written as
u u 1 p + v u = fv + ( t ,h u ) + t ,v , t z z x v v 1 p + v v = fu + ( t ,h v ) + t ,v t z z y
(23) (24)
where v stands for the (u, v) horizontal velocity vector, t ,h and t ,v are the horizontal and vertical eddy viscosity coefficient, respectively, and from this point on all the variables are meant to be the so-called Reynolds-averaged ones. In free surface flows for these equations at the free surface the
z = : w= + v t (25)
w = v z b
(26)
boundary condition applies. To make the description complete, one has to specify the momentum flux at both boundaries, expressed in the form of shear stresses as follows: z = : t ,v
u s , x = , z v s , y = , z u b , x = , z v s , y = , z
t ,v
z = z b : t ,v
t ,v
where s, x and s, y are the surface, b, x and b, y are the bottom shear stress components, respectively.
14
formula, where H is the characteristic depth, V is the characteristic horizontal velocity and L is the characteristic horizontal length scale over which the velocity presents a significant change. It expresses the ratio of the Th and Tadv characteristic timescales of momentum transport generated by the t ,v vertical eddy viscosity and the V horizontal advection, respectively. In case this ration is much smaller than unity (say < 0.1), it indicates that the irregularities in the vertical profile of the horizontal advective velocity are efficiently damped by the vertical eddy viscosity, as a result of which the profile is quite uniform except of course the highly sheared near boundary regions. Assuming 2 10 3 m2/s for the eddy viscosity (see e.g. Simons, 1980; Shanahan et al., 1981; Hutter, 1984; Signell et al., 1990), is estimated for the study lakes as follows:
Lake Balaton: H=3m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 5 10 3 m 0.02 ; Lake Fert, inner bays: H=1,5m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 10 3 m 0.03 ; Lake Fert, large northern pelagic region: H=2m; V= 10 1 m/s; L= 5 10 3 m 0.01 ; Lake Velence, middle pelagic region: H=2m; V= 5 10 2 m/s; L= 2 10 3 m 0.01 . As can be seen the criteria are met in every case, which means in other words that the flow field can be approximated in depth-averaged way, without significant loss of information in the description of the resulting horizontal water exchange, compared to direct threedimensional simulations. In order to determine if the Coriolis-effect is able to exert its influence in the vertical resulting in the Ekman-spiral in the velocity field, Simons (1980) and Heaps (1984) suggested to use the H = 2 t ,v
dimensionless depth, as the ratio of the characteristic depth and the so-called Ekman-, or friction-depth. In case this quantity is much smaller than unity, the velocity distribution along the vertical is dominated only by the shear stresses at the surface and the bottom, otherwise there is room for the Ekman-spiral to develop. It is to be noted that in moderate wind conditions accompanied with moderate vertical eddy viscosity even a small depth lake can behave as if it was deep in the sense of the above parameters, as was shown by several field
15
measurements data. Assuming f = 10 4 s 1 at the latitude of the case study lakes, can be estimated as follows: Lake Balaton: 0.15 ; Lake Fert, inner bays: 0.08 ; Lake Fert, large northern pelagic region: 0.1 ; Lake Velence, middle pelagic region: 0.1 .
q x = u ( z )d z , q y = v( z )d z
zb zb
(31)
h = zb
water depth. Dividing the fluxes by the depth results in the depth-averaged velocities
(32)
qy qx , V= . (33) h h Applying the boundary conditions, considering that pressure gradients over large domains can be originated also from the pa atmospheric pressure, and introducing a so-called momentum dispersion coefficient accounting for momentum correction in averaged nonuniform velocity profile, the following set of equations hold: U= + q = 0 t p p a = g + x x x p p a + = g y y y q x h pa s , x b, x + (Vq x ) = fq y gh + + ( e,h q x ) t x x
q y t + (Vq y ) = fq x gh h pa s , y b , y + + ( e ,h q y ) y y
16
V U = fV g
s , x b , x 1 + + ( e ,h hU ) , x h h h s , y b , y 1 + + ( e ,h hV ) . y h h h
(39) (40)
V V = fU g
A different form of the above set of equations can be established for the velocity and the
V U = V x y
(41)
curl of the depth-averaged velocity by taking the curl of the equation set resulting in
V = ( + f ) V +
s 1 b + ( e ,h h V ) , h h h
(42)
representing the overall transport of vorticity in a velocity field influenced largely of course by the vorticity itself in a domain small enough for the Coriolis coefficient to be constant. Further simplifications are introduced assuming that horizontal vorticity exchange is governed mainly by an apparent local viscosity coefficient giving the form
V = ( + f ) V +
s b + h 2 . h h
(43)
Expending the two first terms on the right hand side, applying the continuity relationship and multiplying by the depth provides the final form of the vorticity balance as follows:
hV = ( + f )V h +
1 1 h 2 s s h b + h h h h
(44)
17
hV
and
h h 2
(45)
(46)
express the advective transport and horizontal redistribution (with a tendency toward smoothing) of the vorticity once introduced to the computational domain.
V h
(47)
expresses the effect of the depth variation on strengthening or weakening vorticity. Imagine vertical vortex tubes attached both to the surface and the bottom according to Helmholtzs principle, which then stretch or shorten, consequently speed up or slow down in angular velocity when transported toward deeper or shallower zones, respectively. Thus advective transport along isobaths results in no change in vorticity. The term
fV h
(48)
represents the vorticity source due to the Earth rotation itself. Note, however, that this term differs from zero only if flows are not parallel to the isobaths. Consequently long-shore flows are not affected, but so are e.g. the end-zones of elongated-shape semi-or totally enclosed basins. From the point of view of shallow lake circulation certainly the most important terms are 1
and
(49)
1 h , h s
(50)
(49) representing the vorticity introduced to the system by the curl of the wind shear stress field resulting from its spatial irregularity governed largely by the IBL evolution discussed earlier, and the combined effect of the local wind shear stress vector and relative bottom gradient in the form of a vector-product (50). Note first that in case of uniform wind shear stress field (49) vanishes and the bottom slope related term dominates the circulation resulting in the well-known barotropic topographic gyres. Second, bottom gradient are activated as vorticity sources by wind shear stresses inclined to them, that is winds perpendicular to 18
isobaths do not do that, but winds blowing parallel to them are most efficient in that. Third, as can be seen (50) scales inversely with the depth whereas (49) is independent of it, consequently in given bottom topography conditions lake-wide water level rising results in weakening, in turn water level lowering in strengthening of (50) against (49). These features will be referred to both in the case studies and in the analysis of the simple model lake behaviour.
(51) (52)
b h h
their primary influence is to suck vorticity out of the system via rotation damping due to friction.
3.6.4 Relative weight of the source terms and their role in inducing circulations
A rigorous order of magnitude analysis of the different terms should be carried out in dimensionless form by introducing characteristic length and velocity scales. Here we skip going into the details, merely underline that in our study cases the source terms related to the wind shear stress and the bottom gradient dominated the patterns. We will discuss it including also some deviatory cases and locations in the modelling chapters.
(53)
(h + zb ) s , x s , x = fq y gh + + e ,h 2 q x , x
(54)
q y
qy + t y h
qx q y + x h
(h + zb ) s , y s , y = fq x gh + + e,h 2 q y , y
(55)
supplied with the IBL-based surface wind shear stress model outlined earlier, and
b, x = b, y =
g
k h k h
2 2 73
2 qx + q 2 qx , y
(56) (57)
g
73
2 qx + q 2 q y , y
19
The discretised numerical solution of the equation set is performed by standard finite difference method on equidistant Cartesian grid.
3.8.2 Water exchange characterised as the evolution of the mean residence time field
In the approach, in a way identical to the conventional advection-dispersion description the age of water masses is considered as transport variable. Water masses with various age in the study domain are advected without age modification, undergo mixing to each other and get older following a zero-order reaction kinetics law, expressing the fact that ageing is linear in time and independent from the actual age. The one-dimensional form of the equation with pure advection and unit rate of growth of the residence time R with boundary condition representing zero age at the inflow section can be written as
R R = u + 1, R( x0 , t ) = 0 , t x
(58)
providing linearly increasing longitudinal residence time distribution at constant flow velocity. Including turbulent diffusion (and assuming mixing of water particles is identical to that of any other substance dissolved in it will give the following concise vector form of the process:
R (59) + v R (D t R ) = 1 . t In the investigations to be presented later on here the depth integrated version of the approach is applied written as (hRh ) + (VhRh ) (hD d Rh ) = h . t
(60)
20
contributions of the sub-regions by means of a kind of multi-species version of the approach as follows:
(hRh , j ) t
+ (VhRh , j ) (hD d Rh , j ) = h ,
(61)
based on which the overall mean residence time field can be reconstructed by simple summation as
R h = Rh , j .
j =1 n
(62)
21
Figure 8. Balaton.
The acoustic-Doppler current and optical turbidity sensors are available also separately, which requires then a data logger to connect. Several deployment techniques have been tested. The most recently developed method shown in Fig. 11 has been applied either in very shallow water or in investigating currents in the lower part of the vertical. The current meters have been used both in single- and multilayer measurements. Due to the size, to the disturbances of the acoustic signal near the boundaries as well as to the presence of surface waves, in very shallow conditions it is often one single set-up in a vertical that can be perform, only. Nevertheless, the currents have been in all cases captured in representative amount containing a number of pronounced events ideal for analysis as well as numerical model calibration.
22
(a)
Figure 9.
(b)
(a)
Figure 10. Aanderaa RCM7 and 9 recording current meters.
(b)
Figure 11. Customary bottom deployment set-up for RCM9 in shallow water.
23
Luettich et al., 1990; Jzsa et al., 2000). As to the currents, compounds due to seiche can be separated from the ones representing circulatory motion. In doing so, in general low-pass filtering removing the compounds with less than 1 hour periodicity is applied, along with an appropriate band-pass filtering to capture the first mode of the local seiche if there is any. For demonstration the simple algorithm of the Gaussian-type low-pass filtering technique is given below in which represents half of the so-called cut-off time period: ~ x jc , 2 =
j = jc
x G( j j )
j c
jc +
(63)
1 G ( j jc ) = e
xjc , 2 = x jc ~ jc , 2 x
( j jc )2 2
~ x jc , 2 1 2 2 = ~ jc , 2 1 ~ jc , 2 2 x x
Figure 12. Layout of Lake Fert (Neusiedl). Note the large reed belt.
Both in the pelagic and littoral zones the bottom is very flat and mild-slope, which expects to give a pronounced role to the spatial irregularities in the surface wind shear stress field. The lakebed is muddy with strong siltation tendencies at places. Water exchange between the pelagic and littoral zones is often poor resulting then in occasional reed quality deterioration.
25
Large part of the lake has recently become a joint national park shared by the two countries. Due to it uniqueness the lake is a good candidate to be a member of the World Heritage. A typical interface area between the pelagic and littoral zones can be seen in Fig. 13, giving an impression on the reed height and density, as well as on the water colour in such highly vegetated areas.
Figure 13. Typical reed zone. Note the brownish in-reed water and the turbidity patches due to the passing-by motorboat.
Figure 14. Hydro-meteorological station at the lake. Roofs are made from local reed.
26
Figure 15. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured over the lake between 28 October 6 December, 1995.
Figure 16. Wind and flow measurement sites (indicated with dots) in 2001.
5.2.3 Calibration and verification of the surface wind shear stress model
The simultaneous wind data collected over a month have been used then for calibrating and verifying the IBL-model for the area. The IBL development in the study area has been proven a very well defined process for which the IBL-model outlined earlier could be calibrated with high confidence. Some 6 prevailing storm events coming basically from NNW were detected and used for the overall validation. The technique adopted here was to carry out an inverse transformation of the speeds to the reed border from both wind measurement sites and check the agreement there. As can be seen in Fig. 17, raw data at Site 2 has got strong trend to give substantially higher speed due to the fetch generally 1.5 km longer. In the figure all the data corresponding to the prevailing wind sector and not deviating too much from each other (which was most often the case) are displayed. The coupled speeds corresponding to 0.15 m reed roughness height, obtained by a least square fitting basis, are shown in Fig. 18. Frankly, the determinism found in the system is strong enough, at the same time the points scatter enough to make it even more convincing. Performing the parameter fitting for the selected individual storm events the roughness height varied between 0.1 and 0.18 m, a very narrow range compared to very wide ones given in relevant boundary layer meteorology textbooks for various canopy types. Apart from the wind data, Fig. 19 shows also the current velocity vectors, measured simultaneously at the two sites. It comes out clearly that in the absence of significant bottom gradients the strong imbalance in the surface wind shear stress dominates the bay-wide circulations, in which water masses go with the wind in the strongly exposed downwind zone, whereas return currents occur in the upwind-zone relatively poor in wind shear stress. 28
16
14
10
Teljes egyezs
Figure 17. Simultaneous wind speeds measured at Site 1 (horizontal axis) and Site 2 (vertical axis) with 300-350 direction and less than 30 difference. Perfect agreement indicated by continuous line.
16
14
12
10
Teljes egyezs
Figure 18. Simultaneous wind speeds transformed from Site 1 (horizontal axis) and Site 2 (vertical axis) to the upwind reed border. Perfect agreement indicated by continuous line.
29
v , [cm/s]
-15
2. pont 15 15
2. pont
v , [cm/s]
-15
Figure 19. Simultaneous wind (left) and flow (right) at Site 1 (upper) and Site 2 (lower), indicated by their end point only.
Figure 20. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 1, wind 2, flow 1, flow 2. Harmonics with less than 1 hour time period removed.
Figure 21. Same as Fig. 20, but harmonics with time period lass than 5 hours removed.
31
Figure 22. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 6/4/2001 14:00. Wind vectors shifted to the circles to be distinguishable.
32
1995 Autumn Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. Wind: 2. Water depth, m 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 Sensor depth, m 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM7 DCS 3500 RCM4S RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S Standard Aanderaa
Figure 24. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 2; flow 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
33
Figure 25. Same as Fig. 24, but here fluctuations with less than 5 hours time period removed.
Figure 26. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/18/1995 14:00. Wind vector shifted to 2W to be distinguishable.
34
Figure 27. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 25-26. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-5 hours periodicity band retained.
35
Figure 28. Bottom topography and reed cover of the lake displayed on the 200 m cell size finite difference grid.
36
Figure 30. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=13m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities within the study bay are around 6 cm/s.
Figure 31. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=12m/s NNW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the study bay around 12 cm/s.
37
Figure 32. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=10m/s SSE wind and 0.06 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the study bay around 8 cm/s.
Figure 33. Half a day state of the distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Northern half of the study bay, induced by modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 30 (left) and Fig. 31 (right).
38
39
1992 Spring Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. Wind: 3. Water depth, m 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.8 Sensor depth, m 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S RCM7 RCM4S RCM4S Standard Aanderaa
Figure 35. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. From top to bottom: wind 3; flow 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
40
Figure 36. The same as Fig. 35, but fluctuations with less than 5 hours time period removed.
Figure 37. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 5/4/1992 11:00. Wind vector shifted outside the lake to be distinguishable.
41
Figure 38. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 36-37. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-5 hours periodicity band retained.
42
Figure 39. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=13m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities around 6 cm/s.
Figure 40. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=12m/s NNW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities around 12 cm/s.
43
Figure 41. Bottom topography of the sample lake displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.
6.2 Joint effect of the depth and wind shear stress distribution
Fig. 42 shows the IBL-based distribution of the wind shear stress for NW wind. The distribution of the two main vorticity sources in this situation is presented in Fig. 43. As can be seen they compete each other in the upwind near-shore zone. In the given conditions the wind stress curl related term proves stronger there resulting basically one single, basin-wide 44
clock-wise circulation (Fig. 45 right), in sharp contrast with the one traditionally obtained as typical two-cell circulation under uniform external forcing. The results belonging to the opposite SE wind direction are given in Fig. 46. While the pattern due to uniform wind becomes a mirror image, the IBL-based forcing results in a baywide circulation with unchanged sense of rotation. It is interesting to see the pattern of the half an hour streak lines in the flow fields discussed above. Based on that the structures for opposite wind directions look very similar, however, for uniform wind field the sense of rotation of the two cells is reversed whereas for the non-uniform one prevails. The mean residence time distributions obtained after 6 hours clearly show even quantify the differences in the water exchange mechanism in Fig. 49-50. Fig. 51 tackles an also important issue, namely the changes of the flow pattern due to significant rising or lowering of the lake water level. As can be seen, dropping the level by 0.7 m strengthens the vorticity source due to the near-shore relative bottom gradient to an extent compensating, even exceeding its counterpart, which results then in the appearance of the twin gyre. On the contrary, the same amount if rise in the water level makes the one-gyre circulation even more pronounced. Note that three-dimensional effects were disregarded here.
Figure 42. Wind shear stress field in Pascal over the lake according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.
45
Figure 43.
s (left) and ( s h ) / h (right) fields in Pa/m over the lake according to the IBL
development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.
Figure 44.
corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.
46
Figure 45. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by wind shear stress field uniform over the lake corresponding to W10=11m/s NW wind (left); and by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore (right). Flow velocity in cm/s.
Figure 46. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by wind shear stress field uniform over the lake corresponding to W10=11m/s SE wind (left); and by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s SE wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore (right). Flow velocity in cm/s.
47
Figure 47. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns seen in Fig. 45.
Figure 48. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns seen in Fig. 46.
48
Figure 49. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake, induced by the modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 45, after 6 hours.
Figure 50. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake, induced by the modelled flow fields seen in Fig. 46, after 6 hours.
49
Figure 51. Effect of 0.7m drop (left) and 0.7m rising (right) of the overall lake water level. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.
Figure 52. Bottom topography of the sample lake with reed covered shallow Western littoral zone, displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.
50
Figure 53. Effect of the reed cover. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW (left) and SE (right) wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.
Figure 54. Bottom topography of the sample lake with dredging in the Western littoral zone, displayed on the 50 m cell size finite difference grid.
51
Figure 55. Effect of the dredging. Modelled steady-state flow patterns induced by wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW (left) and SE (right) wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore. Flow velocity in cm/s.
Figure 56. Half an hour streak lines in the flow patterns induced in the presence of dredging (left) and reed cover (right) by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development corresponding to W10=10m/s NW wind and 0.15 m roughness height at the upwind shore.
52
Figure 57. Distribution of the mean residence time (in hours) that water masses spent in the Southern half of the sample lake in flow induced by IBL-dependent wind shear stress field, W10=10m/s NW, land roughness height 0.15m. State after 6 hours in dredged (left) and reed-covered (right) conditions.
For NW wind, the sense of circulation in the reed-covered and dredged cases is alike, but velocities differ a lot, for obvious reasons. This feature is made even more visible by using the residence time simulation as water exchange indicator.
of two measurement phases out of the four are briefly presented here, focusing on the large central area (Fig. 59) as well as on the region of the rowing track (Fig. 62).
Figure 58. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured at the lake between 16 October 23 November, 1998.
54
1998 Autumn Site No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Wind: Agrd Water depth, m 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 2.0 Sensor depth, m 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 Height: 10.0 Instrument type RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 Standard Met.
Figure 60. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
55
A typical snapshot of the prevailing pattern is given in Fig. 61. Note that in the absence of significant depth gradients the dominating factor is certainly the curl of the wind shear stress vector field because of which e.g. Site 4 falls into the zone of strong return flows.
Figure 61. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/18/1998 10:00. Wind vector is at the measurement site.
56
The layout of the sites in 1999 is given in Fig. 62. As was expected, strong countercurrents dominate the dredged area even for two reasons: due to the large depth and due to the sheltered, short fetch conditions in the prevailing winds. As can be seen in the figure and in the table below, we were going to measure the velocity even in two layers there, but unfortunately one of the instruments were touched by anglers and stopped working correctly. Fig. 63 shows the measured vector time series of one particular W-NW wind event. Even moderate wind could generate locally significant currents, not to mention Site 22 where the narrow exit cross-section considerably speeds up the flow as seen in Fig. 64. An instructive case is given in Fig. 65, with sudden in the wind direction in the last third of the period. The response of the deep area is very sharp as soon as the wind compound parallel to the rowing track changes sign (unfortunately the other instruments had been collected by that time). The two states are well represented in Fig. 66 and 67. 1999 Autumn Site No. 18. 19. 21. 22. Wind: Agrd Water depth, m 1.7 3.1 4.0 2.0 1.8 Sensor depth, m 1.2 2.6 2.5 1.5 Height: 3.0 Instrument type RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 Standard Met.
Figure 63. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
57
Figure 64. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 10/27/1999 12:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.
Figure 65. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
58
Figure 66. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/19/1999 19:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.
Figure 67. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 11/20/1999 8:00. Wind vector shifted into the frame.
59
Figure 68. Bottom topography and reed cover of the lake displayed on the 100 m cell size finite difference grid.
60
Figure 70. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the pelagic areas, corresponding to W10=9m/s NW wind. Highest velocities in the central basin around 4 cm/s.
61
Figure 71. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NW wind and 0.2 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the central basin around 7 cm/s.
Figure 72. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NNE wind and 0.2 m roughness height at the upwind reed border. Highest velocities in the central basin around 10 cm/s.
62
Figure 73. Measured and modelled (indicated with sz) flow vector time series of the calibration event. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
63
Figure 74. Typical snapshot of the measured (black) and modelled (grey) flow pattern on 11/18/1998 8:00. Wind vector seen where it was measured.
Lake Balaton bottom topography, reconstructed on the 333m cell size finite
As the first study lake in Hungary in the Finnish-Hungarian research cooperation framework, it has been thoroughly investigated both by field measurement and numerical modelling. Instead of a longish historical overview let us focus here on the main achievements 64
of the projects carried out in the second half of the nineties in 1997-98, followed closely by suspended sediment transport and bed morphology modelling in 1998-99. The latter formed considerable part of the scientific support to decision making on thin-layer dredging strategies in the West-most bay of the lake.
Figure 76. Measurement sites in 1997 Spring. Wind measured at Site 2 over the lake. (shifted to 2W when displayed).
Instrument type RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 RCM9 RCM4S Standard Aanderaa
Figure 77. Measurement sites in 1997 Autumn. Wind measured at Site 6 over the lake (shifted to 6W when displayed).
Instrument type RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 RCM9 Standard Aanderaa
66
Figure 78. Measurement sites in 1998 Spring. Wind measured at Site 10 over the lake (shifted to 10W when displayed).
Sensor depth, m 2.1 2.0 3.2 3.4 1.2 2.7 Height: 2.5
Instrument type DCS 3500 RCM9 RCM9 RCM9 DCS 3500 DCS 3500 Standard Aanderaa
67
Figure 79. Typical directional distribution of the wind (left), wind route (middle) and wind energy (right), as measured over the lake between 26 April 6 June, 1997.
Figure 80. Shaded relief around the lake, based on the 200 m cell size digital terrain model.
circulation patterns which play an important role in the water exchange and sediment transport processes, thus indirectly also influencing the water quality of the lake.
Figure 81. Aerial photo of a bay showing the reed belt and the brownish plume of a small tributary.
Figure 82. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1997 Spring. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
Figure 83. Same as in Fig. 82, but fluctuations with less than 3 hours time period removed.
70
Figure 84. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 82-83. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-3 hours periodicity band retained.
71
Figure 85. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1997 Autumn. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
Figure 86. Same as in Fig. 86, but fluctuations with less than 3 hours time period removed.
72
Figure 87. Directional distributions in the period seen in Fig. 86. Left box: fluctuations with less than 1 hour periodicity removed. Right box: 1-3 hours periodicity band retained.
73
Figure 88. Vector time series of a prevailing storm event in 1998 Spring. Wind at the top. Fluctuations with less than 1 hour time period removed.
Figure 89. Typical snapshot of the wind and flow pattern on 5/5/1998 3:00. Wind vector shifted from 10 to 10W to be distinguishable.
74
Figure 90. Zooming in on the West-most study area of the lake, as seen based on the 333 m cell size finite difference grid.
75
Figure 91. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field uniform over the lake, corresponding to W10=10m/s NNW wind. Highest velocities are around 12 cm/s.
Figure 92. Modelled steady-state flow pattern, induced by a wind shear stress field according to the IBL development, corresponding to W10=8m/s NNW wind and 0.4 m roughness height at the upwind shoreline. Highest velocities are around 12 cm/s.
76
(67)
The key to the realistic description of the processes is the proper formulation and parameterisation of the erosion and deposition terms. As source terms the following formulae were adopted:
e,i :
S Ci = K e ,i ( e ,i ) = e ,i h t
Sd ,i Ci 2ws ,i = 1 d ,i : h Ci = h t d ,i
(68)
It was assumed, however, that both processes might occur at the same time, the sum of which gives then the instantaneous state of the suspended sediment balance. In equilibrium it is written as follows: 77
(69) 2 ws , i 1 d ,i Once the time variation of the concentration is known the local bed change can be calculated based on the sediment particle density and bulk porosity by , (70)
C eq ,i =
K e ,i h( e ,i )
and the total rate of change can be obtained by summing all the fractions treated separately. The mathematical model outlined above was solved numerically by appropriate finite difference method on the grid identical to the one used in the flow model. Erosion and settling were parameterised based on the result of the field and lab analysis of the bottom sediment. A tri-fraction version seemed to capture reasonably the main features. Calibration was performed against selected measured suspended sediment concentration time series, analysed earlier. Results of modelling a 3 weeks period can be seen in Fig. 94. The model was used for predicting bed changes for longer scenarios as well. Dredging alternatives were also built into the input data and long-term local and bay-wide impact was estimated, along with the rate of refilling of newly dredged areas as seen e.g. in Fig. 95. Last we underline the importance of reasonable approximation of the bottom shear stress distribution, as a driving force of the fluxes there. As was mentioned already in the introduction, in shallow waters the main factors in that are the wind-induced waves and the resulting wave-induced shear stress at the bottom. In the present model the so-called SPM (Shore Protection Manual) shallow water wave formulae proved acceptable to do that job, providing the significant wave height in terms of the wind speed, fetch and local depth (see e.g. Kang et al., 1982).
78
Figure 95. Refilling process of newly dredged areas. Modelled monthly bed changes expressed for two different bulk dry densities 200 and 1300 kg/m3, representing fluidised and consolidated states.
79
11 Acknowledgements
This work was part of the project No. T030792 and T034556 supported by the National Scientific Research Fund of Hungary.
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