MATHS 340SC Real and Complex Calculus

Power Series

1 Standard series
ez = 1 + z +

n
z2
zn
z
+ + + = ,
2!
n!
n=0 n!

|z| < ,

cos z = 1

z2 z4
(1)n z2n
(1)n z2n
+ +
+ =
,
2! 4!
(2n)!
n=0 (2n)!

sin z = z

z3 z5
(1)n z2n+1
(1)n z2n+1
+ +
+ =
,
3! 5!
(2n + 1)!
n=0 (2n + 1)!

1
= 1 + z + z2 + + zn + = zn ,
1z
n=0

ln(1 + z) = z
tan1 z = z

|z| < ,

|z| < 1,

z2 z3
(1)n zn
(1)n zn+1
+ +
+ =
,
2
3
n
n+1
n=0

|z| < 1, z = 1,

(1)n z2n+1
(1)n z2n+1
z3 z5
+ +
+ =
,
3
5
(2n + 1)
n=0 (2n + 1)

cosh z = 1 +

z2 z4
z2n
z2n
+ + +
+ =
,
2! 4!
(2n)!
n=0 (2n)!

sinh z = z +

z3 z5
z2n+1
z2n+1
+ + +
+ =
,
3! 5!
(2n + 1)!
n=0 (2n + 1)!

(1 + z) p = 1 + pz +

|z| < ,

|z| < 1, z = 1,

|z| < ,
|z| < ,

p(p 1) 2
p(p 1) . . . (p n + 1) n
z + +
z + ,
2!
n!

|z| < 1.

2 Series derived from the exponential function

For the exponential series refer to the notes on compound interest and the exponential function. For the trigonometric functions we have from the exponential series,


z2 z4
z3 z5
(iz)2 (iz)3 (iz)4 (iz)5
iz
+
+
+
+ = 1 + + i z + , |z| < ,
e = 1 + iz +
2!
3!
4!
5!
2! 4!
3! 5!


3
4
5
2
4
2
(iz)
(iz)
(iz)
z
z
z3 z5
(iz)
iz

+ = 1 + i z + , |z| < ,
e = 1 iz +
2!
3!
4!
5!
2! 4!
3! 5!
and hence
eiz + eiz
z2 z4
= 1 + , |z| < ,
2
2! 4!
iz
iz
e e
z3 z5
sin z =
= z + , |z| < .
2i
3! 5!

cos z =

Similarly, from the exponential series

z2 z3
+ + ,
2! 3!
z2 z3
ez = 1 z + + ,
2! 3!
ez = 1 + z +

|z| < ,
|z| < ,

we have
ez + e2
z2 z4
= 1 + + + , |z| < ,
2
2! 4!
ez ez
z3 z5
sinh z =
= z + + + , |z| < .
2
3! 5!

cosh z =

3 Series derived from the geometric series

For the geometric series, rearrangement of the identity


(1 z) 1 + z + z2 + + zn = 1 zn+1
gives
1
zn+1
= 1 + z + z2 + + zn +
.
1z
1z
If |z| < 1, |z|n 0 as n . Hence
1
= 1 + z + z2 + + zn + ,
1z

|z| < 1.

3.1 Logarithmic series

Consider the identity

(1)n+1 n+1
1
= 1 + 2 + (1)n n +
.
1+
1+

Integrating with respect to from 0 to z, we have

log(1 + z) =

Z z
0

z2 z3
1
(1)n zn+1
d = z + +
+
1+
2
3
n+1

Z z
(1)n+1 n+1
0

1+

d .

Now suppose z lies inside the unit circle | | = 1, that is, |z| < 1. Then
Z z

Z
 (1)n+1 n+1  Z z | |n+1
|z|n+1 z
|z|n+2


|d
0 as n ,
|d

|
=
 0

1+
1 |z| 0
1 |z|
0 |1 + |

and hence

z2 z3
(1)n zn+1
+ +
+ , |z| < 1.
2
3
n+1
In the special case that z = 1 we will choose a path from z = 0 to z = 1 along the real axis so that
log(1 + z) = z

ln(2) = 1
Now

1 1
(1)n
+ +
+
2 3
n+1

Z 1
(1)n+1 xn+1
0

1+x

dx.

 Z 1
Z 1
 n+2 1

x
1
(1)n+1 xn+1 
n+1

dx
0 as n .
x dx =
=
 0
1+x
n+2 0 n+2
0
2

Hence the series for log(1 + z) also converges for z = 1,

log(1 + z) = z

(1)n zn+1
z2 z3
+ +
+ ,
2
3
n+1

|z| < 1, z = 1.

Furthermore, changing the sign of z gives

log(1 z) = z

zn+1
z2 z3

+ ,
2
3
n+1

|z| < 1, z = 1.

Thus, subtracting the two series yields





1+z
z3 z5
log
= ln(1 + z) ln(1 z) = 2 z + + + ,
1z
3
5

|z| < 1.

3.2 Inverse tangent or arctan series

Again, from the geometric series
1
(1)n+1 2n+2
2
4
n 2n

=
1

,
+

+
(1)
+
1+2
1+2

| | < 1,

we integrate with respect to from 0 to z to get

tan1 z =

Z z
0

(1)n z2n+1
1
z3 z5
+

+
+

=
z

d
1+2
3
5
2n + 1

Let Rn (z) denote the remainder,

Rn (z) =

Z z
(1)n+1 2n+2

1+2

Z z
(1)n+1 2n+2

1+2

d .

d .

Choose a straight line segment from 0 to z so that = tz, t [0, 1]. Then d = z dt, and
Rn (z) =

Z 1
(1)n+1 z2n+2t 2n+2
0

1 + t 2 z2

z dt = (1)n+1 z2n+3

Z 1 2n+2
t
0

1 + t 2 z2

dt.

If |z| < 1, then

1 t 2n+2
t 2n+2
dt |z|2n+3
dt
2
2
2 2
0 |1 + t z |
0 1 t |z|

1
Z
|z|2n+3 1 2n+2
|z|2n+3 t 2n+3
|z|2n+3 1

t
dt
=
0 as n .
=
1 |z|2 0
1 |z|2 2n + 3 0 1 |z|2 2n + 3

|Rn (z)| |z|2n+3

Z 1

If z = 1, then
|Rn (1)|

Z 1 2n+2
t
0

1 + t2

dt

Z 1
0

Hence
tan1 z = z

2n+2

t 2n+3
dt =
2n + 3


z3 z5
+ ,
3
5

1
0

1
0 as n .
2n + 3

|z| < 1, z = 1.