INTRODUCTION

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many of the social behavior seen in today's Internet was demonstrably present in nineteenthcentury telegraph networks, and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals. In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANet. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections. Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switched network between computer systems. 1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN). In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using 50 kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25 were deployed in 1972, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. Computer networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user. Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. For example, all modern aspects of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are computercontrolled, and telephony increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network.

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Basics Of Networking
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. The following provides a general overview of some types and categories and also presents the basic components of a network and te different ways in which networking can be done.

Connection method
Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, Power line communication or G.hn.

Wired Technologies
Twisted-Pair Wire - This is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed range from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second. Coaxial Cable These cables are widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second. Fiber Optics These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. It transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed could go up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than twisted-pair wire.

Wireless Technologies
Wireless LANs Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANS use

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spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. Example of open-standard wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11b. Bluetooth A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances. The Wireless Web The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web through equipments like cellular phones, pagers, PDAs, and other portable communications devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere connection.

Types of networks
Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs and scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 meters), but this is expected to increase with technology improvements.

Local area network

A local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines). For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet.

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be considered one form of a metropolitan area network, specific to an academic setting. In the case of a university campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including; academic departments, the university library and student residence halls. A campus area network is larger than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases) or may be 3|Page

considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited to a smaller area than a typical MAN. The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students accessing internet and university resources. This is a network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, office building, or a military base.

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area networks or campus area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries. Less formally, a WAN is a network that uses routers and public communications links Contrast with (PANs), (LANs), (CANs), (MANs), which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.

Global area network

A global area networks (GAN) specification is in development by several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user communications from one local coverage area to the next.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. A VPN allows computer users to appear to be editing from an IP address location other than the one which connects the actual computer to the Internet.

Internetwork
An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet. Any interconnection among or between public, private, 4|Page

commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork. In modern practice, interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetworks, depending on who administers and who participates in them Intranet, Extranet, Internet Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

Extranet
An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g., a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet
The Internet consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.

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Basic Hardware Components For Networking

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber"). An ethernet card may also be required.

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs longer than 100 meters.

Hubs
A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.

Bridges
Unlike HUBS, Bridges learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one from which the broadcast was received. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port.

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Bridges come in three basic types: 1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs) 2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. 3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters chunk of data between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the packets to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on IP address which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or complex LAN. Some switches are capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has numerous ports, with the intention being that most or all of the network is connected directly to the switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch. Switch is a marketing term that functions as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., MODEM).

Routers
A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router for each packet. Routers work at the Network Layer of the OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.

Types of Networking Introduction

When accomplishing any task, there is usually more than one way to get the job done, sometimes even thousands of different ways. When trying to connect more than one computer together there are also many different ways to get the job done. Some ways are better than others in certain situations, and it is very beneficial to get started in the right direction when networking computers, not just because of usefulness, but also because of security issues.

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Just like with anything, when deciding on how to connect computers together you should investigate on why the job must be done. Question what purpose needs to be accomplished, question if any peripherals need to be shared, question if any documents need to be accessed by more than one person, etc. Once you have more information on what the network actually needs to do, then it will be much easier implementing a plan that will accomplish all of your goals. When setting up a network there are basically three different types of networks - Peer-topeer, Client-Server, and Application-Server Networks. Each type has certain benefits and downsides, this article will describe each type, along with why it could or should be implemented. Those who are deciding to implement a network, or are curious about their existing network should find this article interesting and informative.

Peer To Peer (P2p)

P2p networking type is most commonly used computer networks. This type of network is very cost effective but supports lesser number of computers in network. Ten to fifteen computers can be connected to each other using p2p networking model without problem, more number of computers often create problems. All computers possesses same status within the network and no computer control any other computer but itself, this network does not have server to control and monitor. Security level is not towards higher side and each work station itself is responsible for security. Using p2p models files can be shared among computers. Files like, videos, audios, pictures, spreadsheets and all digital media can be sent or received within the network. Printers, scanners and internet can be shared with in all computers. Next is the picture showing three computers connected to each other with hub and switch. All computers are connected to hub through Network adaptor card using Cable and hub or switch is connected to internet to pass it on to connected computers.. You can see there is no server involved in this diagram but all individual computers are connecting to hub forming P2P network.

An Example of a Peer-to-peer Network

Let us use a small office as an example of a Peer-to-Peer network. In this small business office, the secretary uses the best computer, and has the most drive space; she also has a fast laser printer connected to her computer. The accountant has a mediocre computer that has a color ink jet printer. The owner has a good computer with a zip drive to take work home. All of these computers are networked together, with no central server. The secretary uses the zip drive through the network to backup important documents, and also uses the ink jet printer on the accountant's computer to print out fliers. The accountant uses the laser printer on the secretary's computer to print out checks, accesses some important documents on the secretary's computer, and backs up the accounting data 8|Page

on the zip drive on the owners computer. The owner uses both printers on the other computers, and accesses important documents on the secretary's computer. All of the computers share Internet access through the secretary's computer. All of this gets done with no passwords or user names since all the shared devices use no access control, or other type of security measure. Also in order for the accountant's computer and the owner's computer to be able to read the companies important documents, the secretary's computer must be turned on first.

The Benefits of a Peer-to-peer Network

1. Very cheap to implement because more than likely the Operating System software you have installed on your computers should have the ability to share items with other computers on the network, even though the feature may be limited. 2. Nearly all of the most popular desktop Operating Systems have this feature, including Microsoft Windows and Apple's Mac OS, as well as Unix like OS, such as Linux and the BSDs. So the only cost will be the networking hardware (cards, wiring, hubs or switches), and the labor to configure the workstations for this type of network sharing.

Limitation of P2P networking model:

1. Peer-To-Peer networks are designed for limited number computers, it will start creating issues when exceed 15 computers. 2. Without a central server, it is very difficult, or nearly impossible to secure this type of network in any way. 3. Regular training is required for computer users of P2P network. P2P network is control by computers and computers are controlled by human, small mistake by one of the user can hold the work for other users on same P2P network. 4. On a peer-to-peer network, it is also very difficult to implement a good backup system because important documents tend to be stored on different hard disks on different computers. 5. The users must be able to locate the different shares on the network, and be experienced enough to work through small problems, such as password problems or network mapping problems

Final Words on Peer-to-peer Networks

Peer-to-peer networks can be implemented with very little investment costs, but in order for the network to work properly, the users must be very experienced with computers, and strict guidelines must be implemented and followed in order for the data to remain secure and archived properly

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Client Server Network Model:

Choosing right kind of networking model is very important for organization. The bigger organizations that see growth in networking, Client And Server model is designed for it. The Client-Server network model usually consists of one or more server computers that provide services and information to a number of workstation computers. These services can consist of many different roles, including: file services, web services, email services, domain name lookup services, document version system services, Internet sharing services, etc. A great example of the Client-Server network model is actually the World Wide Internet. On the Internet clients, or computer with web browsers, access web sites that are hosted on servers. The difference in p2p and client server model is that p2p does not have any device or computer that controls computers in the network whereas; client & server model has one dedicated computer which is called server. It is called dedicated server. All computers are connected to hub and hub is connected to dedicated server. Server is responsible to perform according to the request sent to it by clients. Normal computer can also be configured as server and it should be alright and perform server tasks efficiently, but if network growth is expected and many computers are required to attach to network thats where we might need proper server to take over the network. You can see in diagram above. All the workstations (Clients) are attached on server, sometimes there is hub involved but in this case it is just clients and server.

Features of Server:
1. Servers are powerful machines when they are compared to normal desktop computers. 2. They are meant to provide strength to computing power within the entire network. Controlling developed network can only be done by dedicated servers as they have higher specifications to support network. 3. Servers can have better processing speed with multiple processors capability available. 4. Server machine have higher RAM to load and execute software with ease. 5. They have more advance network cards installed for faster data transfer. 6. Hard drives are way bigger to store the data for entire clients. 7. Hardware can be plugged in and plugged out while server is on, this helps network stable, and hardware like hard disk can be removed and attached accordingly.

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Server Os:
Operating systems are also specially designed for servers. Server Os have much more features file serving, print serving, backing up data, enhanced security features etc. There are few major Server Os which are used commonly in servers, Windows server NT. 2000, 2003, Linux and Novell NetWare. Windows server 2003 is more powerful and enhanced for much higher security levels; Linux servers provide the maximum security to networks.

The Benefits of a Client-Server Network

1. Security is relatively easy to implement with this type of network model, since you can setup a single server computer to handle all information requests or login requests for the entire network, thus you only need one username and password for each user on the network. So if you ever need to change a password, you only need to change it at the server and the password would be changed for the entire network. 2. Information control is also easier as you can store all the Data on a single server computer accessible to all. In doing this you gain the ability to easily archive all the companies documents, as well as provide a secure, easy to access network store for all of your users, reducing the possibility of misplaced documents on your network. 3. Each workstation only needs to have one theoretical connection on the network, and that connection is to the main server as illustrated above. 4. It becomes cost effective and cheaper as u are able to maintain only one main server computer and not all the PCc and the data is accessible from anywhere.

The Limitations of a Client-Server Network

1. The cost of this type of network is relatively high up front 2. You must purchase the server hardware while server software is very expensive, especially for larger networks since some software companies charge more for each client computer that will connect to the main server. 3. If you need 24x7 operability, you should allow in your budget a second "redundant" server, so if the main server goes down, the redundant server will step in and provide services until the primary server is back up again. 4. An experienced administrator should be able to setup redundant servers that will assume control of failing servers without user intervention.

Final Words on Client-Server Networks

The Client-Server network model provides important services to the network safely and securely, it also allows the convenience of allowing the users to work on their own workstation machine. However, this network model can be very expensive, not only 11 | P a g e

because the software can be expensive, but you also must provide adequate hardware for both the servers and the individual workstation machines, which can become very expensive with revolving hardware updates.

Networking topologies
Network topology is the physical or logical arrangement and interconnections of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometrical shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flows between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network. Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.

Basic topology types

The study of network topology recognizes three basic topologies: 1. Bus topology 2. Star topology 3. Ring topology

Classification of network topologies

There are also three basic categories of network topologies: 1. Physical topologies 2. Signal topologies 3. Logical topologies The terms signal topology and logical topology are often used interchangeably, though there is a subtle difference between the two.

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The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them i.e., the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system[1].

Physical topologies:

Classification of physical topologies

Point-to-point: The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law. Permanent (dedicated): Children's "tin-can telephone" is one example, with a
microphone to a single public address speaker is another. This is an example of physical dedicated channels. Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.

Switched: Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point

circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

Bus :Bus network topology:

In local area networks where bus technology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the network cable breaks, the

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entire network will be down, since there is only one cable. Since there is one cable, the transfer speeds between the computers on the network is faster.

Linear bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously (disregarding propagation delays).

Distributed bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium).

Star: Star network topology

In local area networks where the star topology is used, each machine is connected to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the star topology allows each machine on the network to have a point to point connection to the central hub. All of the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the signal to travel greater distances. As a result of each machine connecting directly to the hub, the star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding other machines. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is the hub is a single point of failure. If the hub were to fail the entire network would fail as a result of the hub being connected to every machine on the network.

Extended star
A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond 14 | P a g e

that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based.

Distributed Star
A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected together in a linear fashion i.e., 'daisy-chained' with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').

Daisy chains
Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring. A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two transmitters. By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the way around. When a node sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. If a computer is not the destination node, it will pass the message to the next node, until the message arrives at its destination. If the message is not accepted by any node on the network, it will travel around the entire ring and return to the sender. This potentially results in a doubling of travel time for data.

Ring:Ring network topology

In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification purposes. The signal passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction. Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the network. By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit on the network at a time. The machines or computers connected to the ring act as signal boosters or repeaters which strengthen the signals that transverse the network.

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The primary disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.

Mesh
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.

Fully connected mesh topology Fully connected

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to each of the other nodes in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible for data to be simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes.

Partially connected
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.

Tree:Tree network topology

Also known as hierarchical network. The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree. 16 | P a g e

Signal topology
The mapping of the actual connections between the nodes of a network, as evidenced by the path that the signals take when propagating between the nodes.

Logical topology
The logical topology, in contrast to the "physical", is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology.

Classification of logical topologies

The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies, the path that the data takes between nodes being used to determine the topology as opposed to the actual physical connections being used to determine the topology

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