NAME- SAURABH KUMAR REG_ NO- 11111113 ROLL _NO- A41 SECTION- D1114 UNIVERSITY LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

PART-A Q. 1 Which of the four digital-to-analog conversion techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK or QAM) is the most susceptible to noise? Defend your answer.

Ans- Modulation of binary data or digital-to analog modulation is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in a digital signal. the four digital-to-analog conversion techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK or QAM) is the most susceptible to noise:-

Ask is the most susceptible to noise: 1-Amplitude shift key(ask):- The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements. -strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0

 both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero

Modulation:- only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in a given time interval needs to be determined. Advantage: simplicity Disadvantage: ask is very susceptible to noise interface noise usually only affects the amplitude,therefore ask is the modulation technique most affected by noise Application: ask is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

Implementation of ask

Q. 2 We modulate several voice signals and send them through the air. Is this baseband or broadband transmission?

Ans:- broadband transmission used to send several voice signal through the air.

Causes of broadband transmission used: Baseband :- 1. In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single signal.

2. Baseband can carry both analog and digital signal. 3. Baseband is like point to point communication. Broadband :- 1. In broadband transmission, signals are sent on multiple frequencies, allowing multiple signals to be sent simultaneously. 2. broadband carries only analog signal. 3. broadband to is point to multi-point communication.

Broadband :- The term broadband refers to a telecommunications signal or device of greater bandwidth, in some sense, than another standard or usual signal or device (and the broader the band, the greater the capacity for traffic). Broadband in telecommunications refers to a signaling method that includes or handles a relatively wide range (or band) of frequencies. Related terms are wideband (a synonym), baseband (a one-channel band), and narrowband (sometimes meaning just wide enough to carry voice, or simply "not broadband," and sometimes meaning specifically between 50 cps and 64 Kpbs).

Q. 3 Write all reasons that may cause Impairment in Data Transmission in detail? Ans :- Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Attenuation :-attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Distortion:- means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in acomposite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed (see the next section) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same. Figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal.

Noise :- noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.

PART-B Q. 4 To control errors or even to detect them we use various schemes, one of them is Checksum. In what all ways the Checksum can be computed and we can confirm the integrity of the

information that has been floated between the Server & Client?

Ans :- CHECKSUM: A checksum of a message is a modular arithmetic sum of message code words of a fixed word length (e.g., byte values). The sum may be negated by means of an ones'complement operation prior to transmission to detect errors resulting in all-zero messages. Checksum schemes include parity bits, check digits, and longitudinal redundancy checks. Some checksum schemes, such as the Luhn algorithm and the Verhoeff algorithm, are specifically designed to detect errors commonly introduced by humans in writing down or remembering identification numbers.

SERVER & CLIENT:- The general idea for achieving error detection and correction is to add some redundancy (i.e., some extra data) to a message, which receivers can use to check consistency of the delivered message, and to recover data determined to be erroneous. Errordetection and correction schemes can be either systematic or non-systematic: In a systematic scheme, the transmitter sends the original data, and attaches a fixed number of check bits (or parity data), which are derived from the data bits by some deterministic algorithm. If only error detection is required, a receiver can simply apply

the same algorithm to the received data bits and compare its output with the received check bits; if the values do not match, an error has occurred at some point during the transmission. In a system that uses a non-systematic code, the original message is transformed into an encoded message that has at least as many bits as the original message.

Q. 5 Give some advantages and disadvantages of combining the session, presentation, and application layer in the OSI model into one single application layer in the Internet model? Ans :- The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data communicationsbetween any two networked systems. It divides the communications processes into seven layers. Each layerboth performs specific functions to support the layers above it and offers services to the layers below it. Thethree lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the network to an end system. The top four layers comeinto play in the end system to complete the process.

The three top layers in the OSI modelthe Application Layer, the Presentation Layer and the Session Layerare not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the Application Layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack needs to impose monolithic architecture above the Transport Layer.

The disadvantage of combining the three layers is as follows: 1. Service interface and protocols were not clearly distinguished. 2. loosely layered.

3. Protocol Dependent standard. 4. TCP reliably delivers packets; IP does not reliably deliver packets.

The advantage of combining the three layers are:1. Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device. 2. System-specific translation. 3. Support for file transfers.

Q. 6 Draw and mention the key points of a PSTN network & also mention the various types of Switching Techniques? Ans :The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public circuitswitched telephone networks. It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular networks, communications satellites. PSTN network topology:- The PSTN network architecture had to evolve over the years to support increasing numbers of subscribers, calls, connections to other countries, direct dialling and so on.

Various types of switching techniques: :-In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels. There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching

1:- circuit switching:- circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path. ->Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.

Advantages: -> The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:

->Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.) during which no data can be transmitted. ->More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is required for each connection.

2:- message switching:- With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations. -When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message. -The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node.

A message-switching node is typically a generalpurpose computer. The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages, which could be long. Advantages: 1.Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuitswitched systems, because more devices are sharing the channel. 2.Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in route. Disadvantages: 1. Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications. 2.Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.

3:- Packet switching:-Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the

advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the disadvantages of both. -There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram and virtual circuit.

In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is converted into a digital data stream. That series of digital bits is then divided into relatively tiny clusters of bits, called packets. Advantages: 1.Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do not need massive amount of secondary storage.

2.Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or disabled links. Disadvantages: 1. Protocols for packet switching are typically more complex. 2.It can add some initial costs in implementation. 3.If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.