1

Load Characteristics
&
Load Metrics
Outlines
Introduction
Classifications of loads
Residential loads
Industrial loads
Commercial loads
Agricultural loads
Load characteristics
Basic Definitions
Load factors
Application of load characteristics
Load Modeling
Mechanical Load Characteristics
2
Introduction
Utilization?
It is the end result of the generation, transmission,
and distribution of electric power.
The energy carried by the transmission and distribution
system is turned into useful work, light, heat, or a
combination of these items at the utilization point.
Block diagram representation of a power system:
3
Introduction
Importance of Utilization!
Understanding and characterizing the utilization of
electric power is critical for proper planning and
operation of power systems.
Improper characterization of utilization can result of
over or under building of power system facilities and
stressing of system equipment beyond design
capabilities.
4
Loads
The term load refers to a device or collection of
devices that draw energy from the power system.
Individual loads (devices) range from small light bulbs
to large induction motors or arc furnaces.
The term load is often somewhat arbitrarily applied:
used to describe a specific device;
referred to an entire facility and
used to describe the lumped power requirements of power
system components and connected utilization devices
downstream of a specific point in large scale system studies.
5
6
Classifications of Loads
Loads classifications differ according to the
purpose and the manner for which the
classification is developed. They are
characterized in two different ways:
Devices:
Types:
Lighting
Motor
Heating
Electronic
Device characterization of loads is important when
assessing load behavior under abnormal
conditions, either transient or steady-state,
because the various devices behave differently
under such conditions.
7
Classifications of Loads, contd
End user classes (Customer Class):
Most common
Types:
Residential
Commercial
Agricultural (rural commercial)
Industrial
Customer classification is more appropriate when
assessing usage behavior. Such behavior is
normally assessed at the feeder, substation, region,
or system level, and at this level, end-users of a
given class tend to use electrical energy in much
the same manner. This is the orientation we will
take in this module.
8
Residential Load
The highest type of loads from the point of view of the
number of contributing customers and the revenue for
the total number of customers.
Divided into two main types, namely; Urban-Suburban
and Rural loads.
Rural areas are characterized by having the lightest
load densities, therefore large areas have to be
involved in load densities determinations.
Urban areas have higher load densities and thus
smaller subdivisions will be sufficient to reveal the load
density.
9
Commercial Load

10
Industrial Load
They are treated as points of concentrated
loads.
Divided into two main types, namely; Small
plants and Large plants.
They have a wide range of variations in their
load magnitudes.
11
Load Density Ranges
Area Type
Load Density
(KVA / Mile
2
)
Calculation Remarks
Low density - rural residential areas 10 300
From 1 farm @ 10 KVA to 150 farms @
2 KVA average / farm (300 KVA).
Medium density - suburban residential
areas
300 1200
20 % home saturation on 70 x 100 ft
2
plots with 0.5 2 KVA / house.
High density - urban residential areas 1200 4800
80 % home saturation on 70 x 100 ft
2
plots with 0.5 2 KVA / house.
Extra high density residential areas 1.5*10
4
2*10
4
High home saturation percentage with
heating and air conditioning.
Commercial areas 1*10
4
3*10
5
Areas covering ranges of small
shopping centers and commercial
areas up to downtown commercial
areas of large cities.
Other Load Classifications
+ The previous load classes represent the most
commonly used classification of loads.
+ However, this is not the only classification
available.
+ There are other classifications for the electric load
that depend on the manner or the purpose for
which the classification originated.
+ Moreover, classifications according to combined
purposes also exist.
Other Load Classifications
14
Load Curves
The load curve is a plot of load (or load per end-
user) variation as a function of time for a defined
group of end-users.
The end-user grouping may be by electrical
proximity, e.g., by feeder, substation, region, or
system level. Alternatively, it may be by end-user
class.
Daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly load curves
are commonly developed and used in order to gain
insight into the usage behavior of a group of end-
users.
Types of Load Curves
+ Chronological Load Curve:
Load against time during daily hours.
Its shape depends on type of load
(i) The area under the load curve represents the energy generated in the
period considered.
(ii) The area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the power station.
(iii) The peak load indicated by the load curve represents the maximum
demand
15
Chronological Load Curve, Contd
16
Types of Load Curves, contd
+ Load Duration Curve:
Arrangement of elements of chronological load curve in
descending order.
Depends on the number of working hours of each load
regardless when did it work
The area under load duration curve is equal to the area
under chronological load curve.
Typical chronological curve.
Load duration curve
17
Load Duration Curve, Contd
Some remarks from load duration curve and
chronological load curve:
(i) The area under the load duration curve and the
corresponding chronological load curve is equal and
represents total energy delivered by the generating
station.
(ii) The base load (Minimum load) in the load duration curve
will operate for 24 hours.
(iii) Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating
power economically. Proper selection of base load power
plants and peak load power plants becomes easier.
(iv) From these curves the distribution of load between various
generating units can also be predicted.
18
19
Daily Load Curve
This figure shows a daily load curve for a single residential end-
user.
The multiplicity of high peaks is due to the intermittent operation
of large appliances
The highest peaks are a result of simultaneous operation of
large devices as refrigerators, air conditioners, and stoves.
20
Daily Load Curves, contd
To understanding the usage behavior of residential end-users as
a class, we develop a load curve for multiple residential end-
users
daily load curves for groups of end-users
21
Daily Load Curves, contd
We observe the curves become more smoother as the number
of customers increases.
We also observe the peak load per end-user decreases as the
number of end-users in the group increases. This is because at
any given moment, some end-users will incur a peak while
others do not, so that the average load at any given moment will
always be less than the highest individual peaks for that
moment.
This aggregation of load curves across multiple end-users is
done for each of the different end-user classes, except the load
curves are given in terms of percent of peak rather than load per
end-user.
22
Daily Load Curves, contd
Load curves for the various end-user classes and also the
aggregation of these class-specific load curves into a system
load curve.
miscellaneous class
(mainly sales to other
utilities)
23
Daily Load Curves, contd
Some observations from the previous figures:
(i) Urban and rural residential loads
Have three peaks: once at 8 am, once at noon, and once at 6 pm,
Have two valleys, once at 5 am and once at 3 pm,
Differ in that the urban load does not fall off so steeply after 7 pm.
(ii) Commercial loads (rural and urban):
Have a peak at about 11 am, dip slightly at noon, and then are rise
slightly until about 5 pm after which they drop sharply.
(iii) The industrial load:
Curves are similar to the commercial except that the valleys only
dip to about 50% of peak rather than 20% in the case of
commercial. This is the case since many industrial end-users
operate 24 hours a day.
(iv) The system load (solid line):
Has the same form as the residential curves but the peaks and
valleys are less pronounced due to the smoothing effect of the other
load class curves.
24
Load Metrics
There are a number of metrics used to
capture the variability of loads. Some of them
are mainly used in reference to a single end-
user (or customer), and some of them are
mainly used in reference to a substation
transformer or a specific feeder.
25
Load Metrics- Individual Customer
There are several metrics commonly applied to individual
end-users or groups of end-users.
1. Demand:
The demand of an installation or system is the load at the receiving
terminals averaged over a specified interval of time, for example, the
15-minute demand was 4.8 kW.
2. Demand Interval:
It is the period over which the load is averaged.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3.98 4 4.02 4.04 4.06 4.08 4.1 4.12 4.14 4.16
Time of Day
1
5

m
i
n
u
t
e
s

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
26
3. Maximum Demand:
The maximum demand of an installation or system is the largest of all
demands which have occurred during specified period of time.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Customer 2 Customer 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Load Metrics- Individual Customer
27
4. Average Demand:
The energy in kWh used during each 15-minute time interval is
computed by:
kWh = (15-min kW demand)*(1/4) hour
The total energy consumed during the day is the summation of all of
the 15-min interval consumptions.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Average demand =4.9 kW
Hours
Energy Total
Demand KW Average =
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Average demand =2.13 kW
Load Metrics- Individual Customer
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
28
5. Load Factor:
It is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to
the peak load occurring on that period.
F
LF
= 0.66
demand kW Max.
demand kW Average
) ( Factor Load =
LD
F
Load Metrics- Individual Customer
It is clear that 1
st
customers load is more constant, whereas the 2
nd
customers load is
more variable.
Utilities sometimes penalize large industrial or commercial customers on their electric bill if
the load factor is too low (to encourage them to improve their load factor ( F
LD
).
F
LF
= 0.29
29
6. Demand Factor:
It is defined as follows:
The total connected load is the sum of the ratings of all the
electrical devices at the customer location.
The demand factor gives an indication of the percentage of
electrical devices that are ON when the maximum demand
occurs.
load connected Total
demand Maximum
(DF) Factor Demand =
Load Metrics- Individual Customer
30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Customer 1 Customer 2 Customer 3
Energy usage 24.5 17.5 10.67
Max kW
demand
7.5 7.8 7.2
Time of max
demand
1:15 1:45 4:30
Average kW
demand
4.93 3.5 2.14
Load factor 0.66 0.45 0.29
Customer # 1 Customer # 3
Customer # 2
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
31
The following terminology is applied to customer group
metrics or transformer loading metrics, but not usually to
individual end-users.
1. Diversified (Coincident) Demand:
It is the sum of demands imposed by a group of loads
(customers) over a specific period of time .
N.B.
In the previous slide, the summation of the three loads is the
diversified demand for the transformer and it is shown below.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
Note that how the
demand curve is
beginning to smooth out
20Jan12 32
2. Maximum Diversified Demand:
It is the maximum value in the diversified demand curve.
Note that it is not the sum of individual maximum demands nor it
occurs at the same time of individual maximum demand.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time of the Day
1
5
-
M
i
n
u
t
e

K
W

D
e
m
a
n
d
One hour
Maximum
diversified
demand
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
18.2 kW
33
3. Maximum Non-coincident Demand:
It is the sum of the individual customer 15-minutes maximum kW
demands.
For the previous example:
Max. non-coincident demand = 7.8 + 7.5 + 7.2 = 22.5 kW
4. Diversity Factor:
It can be defined according to the following formula:
24 . 1
2 . 18
5 . 22
demand d diversifie Maximum
demand coincident - non Maximum
Factor Diversity = = = =
D
F
+ So, by knowing the diversity factor and the maximum demand of each
load, the maximum diversified demand of a group of customers can be
computed.
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
34
The diversity factor can be mathematically written as:
g
n
i
i
g
n
D
D
D
D
D D D
F

=
=
+ + +
= =
1 2 1
..
demand d diversifie Maximum
demand coincident - non Maximum
But, the demand factor for individual customer is given by:
demand connected Total
demand Maximum
factor Demand = = DF
DF TCD DF = = load connected Total demand Maximum
g
n
i
i i
D
D
DF TCD
F

=

=
1
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
35
The diversity factor will be different as the number of
customers increases till it reaches a saturation level
as shown in the figure below:
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of Customers
D
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
36
5. Utilization Factor:
It gives an indication of how well the capacity of the transformer is
being utilized.
Rating kVA r Transforme
Demand KVA Maximum
) ( Factor n Utilizatio =
u
F
6. Load Diversity:
It is the difference between the non-coincident maximum demand
and the maximum diversified demand.
g
n
i
i
D D LD |
.
|

\
|
=

=1
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer
37
Example:
Consider that a transformer serving five feeders is
rated 550kVA and that the maximum coincident
demand on the transformer for the year is 525kW
at a power factor of 0.9. What is the utilization
factor?
Utilization Factor- Example
+ Components with high utilization factors (close to or
greater than 1) may need to be replaced or reinforced
in the near future.
061 . 1
550
3 . 583
550
9 . 0 / 525
Factor n Utilizatio = = =
38
7. Contribution Factor (c
i
)
It is defined as the contribution of the i
th
load to the group maximum
diversified demand.
n n g
D c D c D c D + + + = ...
2 2 1 1
demand maximum coincident - non Class
peak system of at time demand Class
=
i
c
Load Metrics-Distribution Transformer

=
+ + +
=
n
i
i
n n
C
D
D c D c D c
F
1
2 2 1 1
...

=
=
n
i
i
g
C
D
D
F
1
or,
9. Loss Factor:
It is the ratio of the average power loss to the peak power loss during
a specified period of time.
load peak at loss power
loss power average
) ( Factor Loss =
LS
F
39
+ The feeder is connected to more than one
transformer.
+ The load that a feeder serves will display a
smoothed out demand curve as shown below.
Load Metrics- Feeder Load
40
+ The maximum diversified demand becomes the
allocated load for the transformer.
Load Metrics- Feeder Load
41
Example 1
Determine the following:
a) For each transformer find the 15-minute non-coincident maximum kW
demand
b) The 15-minute diversified kW demand
c) The 15-minute maximum kVA diversified demand for each transformer
assuming power factor = 0.9
d) Repeat parts a and b for each line segment.
N F
D
N F
D
1 1 11 2.67
2 1.6 12 2.7
3 1.8 13 2.74
4 2.1 14 2.78
5 2.2 15 2.8
6 2.3 16 2.82
7 2.4 17 2.84
8 2.55 18 2.86
9 2.6 19 2.88
1 2.65 20 2.9
42
Example 1, Solution
T1:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 12.4+13.4+16.1+12.9+11.9 = 66.7 kW
T2:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 12.9+13.8+14.2+16.3+14.3+17 = 81.6 kW
kW 3 . 30
2 . 2
7 . 66
5 for
max
demand Div. Max. = =

=
factor Diversity
coincident Non
kW 5 . 35
3 . 2
6 . 81
6 for
max
demand Div. Max. = =

=
factor Diversity
coincident Non
T3:
Non-coincidence max kW demand = 17+15.1+16.7+18.3+17.3+16.1+17 = 117.5 kW
kW 0 . 49
4 . 2
5 . 117
7 for
max
demand Div. Max. = =

=
factor Diversity
coincident Non
43
Example 1, Solution
kVA 6 . 33
9 . 0
3 . 30
demand . kVA Max.
T1
= =
kVA 4 . 39
9 . 0
5 . 35
demand . kVA Max.
T2
= =
kVA 4 . 54
9 . 0
0 . 49
demand . kVA Max.
T3
= =
The maximum non-coincident kW demand is the sum of
the maximum demands of all 18 customers.
Segment N1-N2
Non-coincident max. demand: 66.7+81.6+117.5 = 265.5 kW
kW 8 . 92
86 . 2
8 . 265
18 for
max
demand Div. Max. = =

=
factor Diversity
coincident Non
44
Example 1, Solution
The line sees 13 customers. The maximum non-coincident
kW demand will be
Segment N2-N3
Non-coincident max. demand: 81.6+117.5 = 199.1 kW
kW 6 . 72
74 . 2
1 . 199
13 for
max
demand Div. Max. = =

=
factor Diversity
coincident Non
Segment N3-N4
The line segment sees the same non-coincident demand
and diversified demand as that of transformer T3.
45
Example 2
There are six residential customers connected to a
distribution transformer as shown below. Assume that the
connected load is 9 kW per house and that the demand
factor and diversity factor are 0.65 and 1.1 respectively.
Determine the following:
a)The diversified demand on the distribution transformer.
b)The needed rating of the transformer if the power factor
is 0.85 lagging and available standard transformer ratings
are 10, 25, 35, 50 and 100 kVA.
46
Example 2, solution
D
n
i
i i
g
F
DF TCD
D

=

=
1
The diversified demand
kW 9 . 31
1 . 1
65 . 0 9
6
1
=

= i
g
D
The kVA rating will be: kVA kVA 5 . 37
85 . 0
9 . 31
= =
To avoid any overloading of the transformer the closest
transformer will be the 50 kVA.
47
Example 3
For the following data find
the following:
a) The class contribution factors
for each of the three load
classes.
b) The diversity factor for the
primary feeder.
c) The diversified maximum
demand of the load group.
d) The coincident factor of the
load group.
48
Example 3, solution
For better visualization to the load, the summation of the
three loads is added as shown below
49
Example 3, solution
demand maximum coincident - non class
peak system of at time demand class
=
i
c
0
kW 100
kW 0
= =
street
c
6 . 0
kW 1000
kW 600
= =
l residentia
c
0 . 1
kW 1200
kW 1200
= =
commercial
c
a) The class contribution is defined as:
50
Example 3, solution
b) The diversity factor is defined as:
g
n
i
i
D
D
D
F

=
=
1
n n g
D c D c D c D + + + = ...
2 2 1 1
As previously defined, the maximum diversified demand is defined
as follows:
278 . 1
1200 0 . 1 1000 6 . 0 100 0
1200 1000 100
1
1
=
+ +
+ +
=

=
=
n
i
i i
n
i
i
D
D c
D
F
51
Example 3, solution
c) The maximum diversified demand
kW 1800 ...
2 2 1 1
= + + + =
n n g
D c D c D c D
Also this can be shown
from the previous figure.
d) Coincidence factor :
7825 . 0
278 . 1
1 1
= = =
D
C
F
F
52
Application of Load Characteristics
There are two main types of applications
to load characteristics in distribution
systems;
Loss evaluation
Load estimation.
53
Loss Evaluation
During a specified interval, assume the load is
a for time t
1
, b for time t
2
, and c for time t
3
.
The average load (demand) is
3 2 1
3 2 1
t t t
t c t b t a
P
av
+ +
+ +
=
The demand loss is then calculated as
2
3 2 1
3 2 1
2
,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
= =
t t t
t c t b t a
k P k P
av av LS
where: k is the proportionality constant
20Jan12 54
The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors
Consider the following primary feeder connected to a variable load
2 max
P
P
P
P
F
av av
LD
= =
2 ,
,
max ,
,
LS
av LS
LS
av LS
LS
P
P
P
P
F = =
load factor and loss factors for this daily
load curve are:
Assume also that the load is characterized by the following arbitrarily and ideal
daily load curve
55
2 max
P
P
P
P
F
av av
LD
= =
2 ,
,
max ,
,
LS
av LS
LS
av LS
LS
P
P
P
P
F = =
T
t T P t P
P
av
) (
1 2
+
=
T P
t T P t P
F
LD

+
=
2
1 2
) (
T
t T
P
P
T
t
F
LD
) (
2
1

+ =
But
Also,
It can be shown that:
T
t T
P
P
T
t
F
LS
LS
LS
) (
2 ,
1 ,

+ =
The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors, contd
56
2
1 1 ,
P k P
LS
=
T
t T
P
P
T
t
F
LS
) (
2
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
The copper losses are the function of the associated loads:
2
2 2 ,
P k P
LS
=
Using the above equations, the load factor can be
related to the loss factor for three different cases:
a) Off-peak load is zero
b) Very short lasting peak
c) Load is steady
The Relationship Between the Load and
Loss Factors, contd
57
a) Off-peak load is zero:
0
1 ,
=
LS
P 0
1
= P
and
T
t
F F
LS LD
= =
b) Very short lasting peak:
0 t
and
1 =

T
t T
( )
2
LD LS
F F
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, contd
58
c) Load is steady
T t
In this case the difference between the peak load and the
off-peak load is negligible. An example for such load is a
petrochemical plant.
LD LS
F F
Therefore, in general, the loss factor cannot be determined
from load factor. However, limiting values of the relation
can be found.
F
2
LD
< F
LS
< F
LD
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, contd
So, the value of the loss factor is:
59
+ Buller and Woodrow developed an approximate
formula to relate the loss factor with the load factor:
2
7 . 0 3 . 0
LD LD LS
F F F + =
+ For rural areas the formula has been modified as
follows:
2
84 . 0 16 . 0
LD LD LS
F F F + =
The Relationship Between the Load and Loss
Factors, contd
Both F
LD
and F
LS
are in per unit
Load Estimation
Step 1: Determine the total number of appliances by
multiplying the total number of customers by the per unit
saturation.
Step 2: From the curve in the Maximum diversified 30 min
demand characteristics figure, obtain the corresponding
diversified demand per customer for the given number of
customers.
Step 3: The maximum demand is obtained by multiplying the
demand found in step 2 by the total number of appliances.
Step 4: The contribution of this type of load to the group
maximum demand is obtained by multiplying the resultant
value from step 3 by the corresponding hourly variation factor
found in the Hourly variation factor table.
60
Maximum Diversified 30 Min Demand Characteristics
Of Various Modern Residential Loads Figure *
61
Maximum Diversified 30 Min Demand Characteristics
of Various Modern Residential Loads Figure *
a = clothes dryer;
b = off-peak water heater, "off-peak" load;
c = water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked elements;
d = range;
e = lighting and miscellaneous appliances;
f = 0.5-hp room coolers;
g = off-peak water heater, "on-peak" load, upper element uncontrolled;
h = oil burner;
i = home freezer;
j = refrigerator;
k = central air-conditioning, including heat-pump cooling, 5 hp heat pump (4-ton
air conditioner);
l = house heating, including heat-pump-heating-connected load of 15 kW unit-type
resistance heating or 5-hp heat pump.
* C.E. Arvidson, Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential Distribution Transformer Loads, Edison Electr. Inst. Bull., Vol.8, October 1940, pp
469-479.
62
Hourly Variation Factor Table *
63
Hourly Variation Factor Table *
* = Load cycle and Maximum diversified demand are dependent on
outside temperature, dwelling construction and insulation among
other factors.
= Load cycle and maximum diversified demands are dependent on
tank size, and heater element rating: values shown apply to 52-gal
tank, 1500 and 1000 W elements.
= Load cycle is dependent on schedule of Water heater restriction.
= Hourly variation factor is dependent on living habits of individuals:
in a particular area, values may be different from those shown.
* C.E. Arvidson, Diversified Demand Method of Estimating Residential Distribution Transformer Loads, Edison Electr. Inst. Bull., Vol.8, October 1940, pp
469-479.
64
65
Load Models
Load models are traditionally classified into
two broad categories,
Static models
Dynamic models
In performing power system analysis such as
power flow and stability simulation studies,
models must be developed for all pertinent
system components, including generating
stations, transmission and distribution
equipment, and load devices.
Improper modeling could be very costly.
66
Static Load Models
These models express the active and reactive powers, at any
instant of time, as a function of the bus voltage magnitude and
frequency.
Static load models are used in both static and dynamic load
components.
The static load is modeled as an exponential function of voltage
67
Dynamic Load Models
Studies of inter area oscillations, voltage stability, and long term
stability often require load dynamic to be modeled.
Difference or differential equations can be used to represent
such models
68
Dynamic Load Models, contd
69
Types of Static and Dynamic Load
Models
The following terminology is commonly used in
describing different types of static and dynamic load
models.
- Constant impedance load model is a static load model
where the power varies directly with the square of the
voltage magnitude. It may also be called a constant
admittance load model.
- Constant current load model is a static load model where
the power varies directly with the voltage magnitude.
- Constant power load model is a static load model where
the power does not vary with changes in voltage magnitude.
It may also be called constant MVA load model.
70
Simple Static Load Models Representations
71
Hybrid Load Models Representations
72
Types of Static and Dynamic Load
Models, contd
- Polynomial load model is a static load model that
represents the power relationship to voltage magnitude as a
polynomial equation, usually in the following form:
- The parameters of this model are the coefficients (a
1
to a
6
)
and the power factor of the load. This model is sometimes
referred to as the ZIP model, since it consists of the sum of
constant impedance (Z), constant current (I), and constant
power (P) terms.
- P
o
and Q
o
are the real and reactive power consumed by the
load at nominal voltage respectively.
73
Types of Static and Dynamic Load
Models, contd
- Exponential load model is a static load model that
represents the power relationship to voltage as an
exponential equation, usually in the following form:
Note that by setting these exponents to 0, 1, or 2, the load can be
represented by constant power, constant current or constant impedance
models, respectively. Other exponents can be used to represent the
aggregate effect of different types of load components. Exponents greater
than 2 or less than 0 may be appropriate for some types of loads.
74
Comparison of Exponential and Polynomial Models
Both models provide good representation around rated or
nominal voltage.
The accuracy of the exponential form deteriorates when voltage
significantly exceeds its nominal value, particularly with
exponents () greater than 1.0.
The accuracy of the polynomial form deteriorates when the
voltage falls significantly below its nominal value when the
coefficient a
1
is non zero.
A nonzero a
1
coefficient represents some portion of the load as
constant power.
A scheme often used in practice is to use the polynomial form,
but switch to the exponential form when the voltage falls below a
predetermined value.
75
Types of Static and Dynamic Load
Models, contd
- Frequency-dependent load model is a static load model
that includes frequency dependence. This is usually
represented by multiplying either a polynomial or
exponential load model by a factor of the following form:
where
f is the frequency of the bus voltage,
f
o
is the rated frequency,
a
f
is the frequency sensitivity parameter of the model.
76
Load Modeling Technique
There are two approaches in load modeling,
a)The component based approach, which models
the load on the basis of familiarity with static and
dynamic behavior of all the individual loads and
load components of a particular load bus; and
b)The measurement based approach, which uses
system identification to estimate a proper model
and its parameters.
77
Component-Based Approach
It is a bottom-up approach in that the different load
component types comprising load are identified.
Each load component type is tested to determine the
relationship between real and reactive power
requirements versus applied voltage and frequency.
A load model, typically in polynomial or exponential
form, is then developed from the respective test data.
The range of validity of each model is directly related
to the range over which the component was tested.
78
Component-Based Approach (Cont.)
The load model is expressed in a per-unit basis (i.e.,
normalized with respect to rated power, rated voltage,
rated frequency, rated torque if applicable, and base
temperature if applicable).
A composite load is approximated by combining
appropriate load model types in certain proportions
based on load survey information. The resulting
composition is referred to as a load window.
79
Component-Based Approach (Cont.)
i) 1-ph Central Air Conditioner load
T V T V V V Q
T V T V T V p
A A A + A + A + A + =
A A A + A + A + A + =
* * 455 . 1 * 839 . 0 * 422 . 5 * 543 . 0 * 664 . 0 315 . 0
* * 900 . 0 * 388 . 2 * 07 . 2 * 9507 . 0 * 4311 . 0 0 . 1
2 3 2
2 2
ii) 3-ph Central Air Conditioner load
T V T V T V Q
T V T V T V p
A A A + A + A + A + =
A A A A + A + A + =
* * 597 . 0 * 199 . 0 * 81 . 5 * 058 . 0 * 37 . 2 695 . 0
* * 154 . 0 * 188 . 0 * 005 . 1 * 487 . 0 * 269 . 0 0 . 1
2 2
2 2
iii) Freezer
4 3 2
4 3 2
* 0995 * 293 * 276 . 427 * 269 . 0 38 . 1
* 380 * 6 . 133 * 616 . 12 * 32 . 1 0 . 1
V V V V Q
V V V V p
A + A + A + A + =
A + A + A + A + =
The following are examples for component load models, which
are constructed based on measurements conducted by EPRI
where: V is the voltage difference and T is the temperature
deference
80
Measurement Approach
It is a top-down approach in that measurements are taken at
either a substation level, feeder level, some load aggregation
point along a feeder, or at some individual load point.
Variation of frequency for this type of measurement is not usually
performed unless special test arrangements can be made.
Voltage is varied using a suitable means and the measured real
and reactive power consumption recorded.
Statistical methods are then used to determine load models.
A load survey may be necessary to classify the models derived
in this manner.
The range of validity for this approach is directly related to the
realistic range over which the tests can be conducted without
damage to customers equipment.
81
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties
Protective relays are notoriously difficult to model.
The entire load of a substation can be tripped off line
or the load on one of its distribution feeders can be
tripped off line as a result of protective relay
operations.
At the utilization level, motors on air conditioner units
and motors in many other residential, commercial,
and industrial applications contain thermal and/or
over-current relays whose operational behavior is
difficult to predict.
Protective Relays
82
Thermostatically Controlled Loads
Air conditioning units, space heaters, water heaters, refrigerators,
and freezers are all controlled by thermostatic devices.
The effects of such devices are especially troublesome to model
when a distribution load is reenergized after an extended outage
(cold-load pickup).
The effect of such devices to cold-load pickup characteristics can
be significant.
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, contd
83
Voltage Regulation Devices
Voltage regulators, voltage controlled capacitor
banks, and automatic LTCs on transformers exhibit
time-dependent effects.
These devices are present at both the bulk power and
distribution system levels.
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, contd
84
Discharge Lamps (Mercury Vapor, Sodium
Vapor, and Fluorescent Lamps)
These devices exhibit time-dependent characteristics
upon restart, after being extinguished by a low-
voltage condition, usually about 70% to 80% of rated
voltage.
Devices Contributing to Modeling
Difficulties, contd
Mechanical Load
Characteristics
85
Nature of Mechanical load
The nature of the mechanical load has to be examined before
selecting an electrical drive (motor).
The drive should be able to meet the output torque at
different speeds.
To ensure proper choice of motor for a given drive, the
matching of speed-torque characteristic is to be ensured for
both motor and load.
When there is a decrease in speed, the motor torque should
be more than the load torque and for an increase in speed
the motor torque must be less than the load torque.
This figure shows the
relationship in which the
load torque TL
1
gives a
stable operating point,
while the load torque curve
TL
2
results in unstable
condition.
86
Types of Mechanical Loads (Load
Torques)
Load can be classified under two categories:
(1) Active or potential load torque:
This type of load is due to the forces of gravity, compression or tension in a
spring or in any elastic body. It is also known as potential load as it is
associated to the change in the potential energy of various elements of an
electrical drive system.
They may be positive or negative depending upon whether they aid or
oppose the motion of the drive.
Examples:
Hoists, elevators, lifts and railway locomotives on gradients etc.
(2) Passive load torque:
These are due to friction, cutting and deformation of inelastic body. These
torques always oppose the motion of drive and change their sign when the
direction of rotation of the drive is changed.
Example:
Fraction torque: it always acts in a direction opposite to that of
driving torque.
87
Components of Load Torques
Load torque can be divided into following components:
1. Frictional torque (T
F
):
Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various
moving parts of the load. T
F
is equivalent value of various friction
torques referred to the motor shaft.
1. Windage torque (T
W
):
Windage torque is due to wind and opposing the motors motion.
1. Torque required to do some useful mechanical work (T
L
):
This torque depends upon particular application. It may be:
Constant and independent of speed ;
Some function of speed;
Depend on the position or path followed by load;
Time variant or time-invariant;
Vary periodically and it may also depend on the load's mode of
operation.
88
Classification of Mechanical Loads
Mechanical loads can be broadly classified into load
torque varying with speed and with time.
(A) Variation with speed:
(i) Constant load torque:
The torque is independent of the speed and it is constant.
Example:
hoist is an example of load where torque is constant and
independent of speed.
89
Classification of Mechanical Loads,
contd
Mechanical loads can be broadly classified into load
torque varying with speed and with time.
(A) Variation with speed:
(ii) Load torque varies linearly with speed:
The torque is increased linearly with the speed.
Example:
hoist fluid friction where lubricant is used
90
Classification of Mechanical Loads,
contd
Mechanical loads can be broadly classified into
load torque varying with speed and with time.
(A) Variation with speed:
(iii) Load torque varies with square of speed :
Examples:
fans, compressors, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellers,
coilers, etc.
91
Classification of Mechanical Loads,
contd
Mechanical loads can be broadly classified into
load torque varying with speed and with time.
(A) Variation with speed:
(iv) Load torque varies inversely with the speed :
This occurs where deformation of material takes place
Examples:
grinding and metal drawing etc.
92
Classification of Mechanical Loads, cont'd
(B) Variation with time:
Depending upon the time for which load exists on a electric
drive, the load torques can be classified as:
(i) Continuous and constant load:
Example: centrifugal pumps operating under same
condition for a long time.
(ii) Continuous but variable loads:
Example: hoisting winches, conveyors etc .
(iii) Short time intermittent loads:
Example: excavators, cranes and hoists etc.
(iv) Pulsating loads:
Example: reciprocating pumps and textile looms, etc.
(v) Impact loads:
Example: rolling mills, forging hammers, shearing
machines etc. Such machines have flywheel associated
with them.
93
Characteristics of Different Types of
Mechanical Loads
1. Lifting load: This involves
lifting of some weight by a
crane or hoist etc. In lifting of
loads the torque required
independent of speed.
2. Air and fluid friction: In these
types of loads the torque
changes with the square of
speed such as in blowers, fans
and water wheels etc. In this
case Torque (speed)2 as
shown in this figure
T
o
r
q
u
e
94
Characteristics of Different Types of
Mechanical Loads, cont'd
3. Load due to friction: Whenever two surfaces move one over
the other on a shaft, rotates in a bearing or bush, an opposite
face always acts at the surface. This force is called the frictional
force. However this force can be decreases by the using a
lubricant. When no lubricant is used friction is called dry friction,
torque in that case is constant with speed. In fluid friction where
a lubricant is used the torque is linearly proportional to speed as
shown below
95
Characteristics of Different Types
of Mechanical Loads, cont'd
4. Deformation loads: Such types of loads occur in
crushing, grinding and metal drawing etc. In such
cases torque is inversely proportional to the speed as
shown in the following figure.
96
Characteristics of Different Types
of Mechanical Loads, cont'd
5. Combined loads: a combination of two or more types of
mechanical loads e.g. in a centrifugal pump the mechanical load
consist mainly of a height head and velocity head. Height head
means pump has to lift water from lower level to higher level
against gravity. Therefore the torque required for this load will be
constant and independent of speed. Velocity head means the
load due to friction and therefore the torque required to overcome
this load will be proportional to square of speed as shown below.

T
o
r
q
u
e
Height Head
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

H
e
a
d
N
e
t

C
u
r
v
e
97