Human Anatomy & Physiology

Human Anatomy & Physiology
kab.instru@coep.ac.in
Cell
Structure and functions
Cell
Smallest functional unit of the body
Organs
Tissue
Cell
Systems
The body and its constituents
Structure of cell
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Cytoskeleton
The Origin of Bio-potentials

Bioelectric Signals
Bioelectrical potential is a result of electrochemical activity across
the membrane of the cell.
Bioelectrical signals are generated by excitable cells such as nervous,
muscular, and glandular cells.
The resting potential of the cell is -40 to -90 mV relative to the
outside and +60 mV during action potential.
Volume conductor electric field is an electric field generated by
many excitable cells of the specific organ such as the heart.
Typical types of bioelectric signals
Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Electroretinogram (ERG)
Bioelectric Signals
L: latent period= transmission time from stimulus to recording site.
Potential inside cells -40
to -90 mV relative to the
outside.

Cell membrane is
lipoprotein complex that
is impermeable to
intracellular protein and
other organic anions (A
-
)

The Resting State
Membrane at resting state is
-slightly permeable to Na
+
and freely permeable to K
+
and Cl
-
-permeability of potassium P
K
is 50 to 100 times larger than the
permeability to sodium ion P
Na
.

skeletal muscle membrane
Internal media
External media
140 mmol/liter of K
+
2.5 mmol/liter of K
+
K
+
Cl
-
Internal media
External media
140 mmol/liter of K
+
2.5 mmol/liter of K
+
K
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
Cl
-
Diffusional force > electrical force
Diffusional force = electrical force
-
-
-
+
+
+
Electric Field
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Keeping the cell at resting state requires active transport of ionic
species against their normal electrochemical gradients.
Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport that transports Na
+
out
of the cell and K
+
into the cell in ratio 3Na
+
:2K
+

Energy for the pump is provided by a cellular energy adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
Internal media
External media
140 mmol/liter of K
+
2.5 mmol/liter of K
+
2K
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
+
+
Electric Field
3Na
+
Equilibrium Potential- Nernst Equation
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
)
`
+ +
+ +
=
o Cl P Na P K P
Cl P Na P K P
F
RT
E
Cl i Na i K
i Cl o Na o K
ln
At 37
o
C
Where n is the valence of K
+
.
| |
| |
| |
| |
i
o
i
o
k
K
K
K
K
nF
RT
E
10
log 0615 . 0 ln = =
E: Equilibrium transmembrane resting potential, net current is zero
P
M
: permeability coefficient of the membrane for ionic species M
[M]
i
and [M]
o
: the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of M
in moles/ liter
R: Universal gas constant (8.31 j/mol.k)
T: Absolute temperature in K
F: Faraday constant (96500 c/equivalent)
The Active State
Membrane at resting state is polarized (more negative inside the cell)
Depolarization : lessening the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell less negative.

Hyperpolarization : increasing the magnitude of cell polarization by
making inside the cell more negative.

A stimulus that depolarize the cell to a potential higher than the
threshold potential causes the cell to generate an action potential.

Action Potential:
- Rate: 1000 action potential per second for nerve
- All-or-none
- Av = 120 mV for nerve
Action Potential
If stimulus depolarize the cell such that V
cell
> V
threshold
an action
potential is generated.

Internal media
External media
+ -
-
-
+
+
Electric Field
Na
+
140 mmol/liter of K
+
2.5 mmol/liter of K
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
Electric Field
K
+
Action Potential
Absolute refractory period: membrane can not respond to any
stimulus.
Relative refractory period: membrane can respond to intense
stimulus.
Action Potential
Action potential travel at one direction.
Schwann Cell
Node of Ranvier
Myelin
sheath
Active
node
Periaxonal
space
Axon +
Local closed (solenoidal)
lines of current flow
Repolarized
membrane
Axon
Resting
membrane
External medium
+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+
+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+
+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+
+

+

+

Active region
Depolarized
membrane
Direction of
propagation
Systems

Muscular System
Skeletal System
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Circulatory System
Excretory System
Nervous System
Muscular System
Types of Muscle Fibre
White Muscle Fibre
Predominantly takes part in fast action
Requires more Oxygen
Heart & Lungs have to work more
Red Muscle Fibre
Predominantly takes part in Slow action
Requires less Oxygen
Heart & Lungs have to work less
Presence of Myoglobin


Types of Muscles

Striped Muscle (Voluntary Muscle, Skeletal Muscle)
Movement controlled by will
Attached to bones, ligaments, cartilage & skin
Unstriped Muscle (Involuntary Muscle, Smooth Muscle)
Movements cannot be controlled by will
Glands, Blood Vessels, Organs & Tubular structures
are made of unstriped muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Involuntary Control
Interconnected fibres (forming a web)

Properties of Muscles

Contraction & Relaxation
Elasticity
Muscle tone
Fatigue

Work of Muscle depends on
Speed of contraction and relaxation
Co-ordination of joints and muscle
Type of Work
Isotonic
Tone remains constant
Length changes
Requires more Oxygen
Taking initial state requires more time
Isometric
Length remains constant
Tone changes
Requires less Oxygen
Taking initial state requires less time
Skeletal System
Composition of Bone
70% calcium, magnesium & phosphorus salts
(Inorganic matter)
30% Proteins, Fats, Carbohydrates (Organic
matter)

Children
Less amount of inorganic matter
Old Age
Less amount of organic matter
Cavity in bone

Cavity in bone:
Red bone marrow
produces RBC
Yellow bone marrow is
deposits of fats
Joints
Joints
Bony ends covered with hyaline cartilage
Ligaments bind the bone together
Joint cavity enclosed by a capsule-synovial
membrane
Cavity contains lubricant fluid-synovial fluid
Types of Joints
Types of joints
Fixed joints Mobile joints
Skull,
Vertebra

Ball & Socket joint,
Sliding joint, Hinge joint,
Pivot joint

Types of Mobile joints
Ball & Socket joint Hinge joint

Sliding joint Pivot joint

Skull

Functions of Skeletal System
Supports the body
Protects the vital organs
Helps to produce red blood cells
Acts as levers in locomotion
Provides surface for muscle attachment
Storage of salts and minerals
Digestive System
Digestion is chemical and mechanical
process on the ingested food to prepare it
for assimilation by the body.
Function of Digestive System
Ingestion
Chewing
Swallowing
Digestion
Absorption
Excretion of undigested food
Organs of Digestive System
Mouth
Pharynx (Throat)
Oesophagus (Food tube)
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Layers of Digestive System
Inner Epithelial layer
Secretion of enzyme and mucus
Soft and pink in colour
Middle Muscular layer
Outer layer (Longitudinal muscles)
Inner layer (Circular muscle)
Peristalsis (Segmental contraction)
Outer Serous layer
Protective function
Mouth
Beginning of Digestive system
Lips, teeth, gums, tongue.
Palate (soft and hard), tonsils
Opening of Salivary glands
Teeth
Total 32 in adults
Tongue
Functions
Helps in mastication
Mixing all saliva with food
Swallowing
Sensation of taste
Speech

Salivary glands
3 pairs
Parotid in front of ear
Submandibular below lower jaw
Sublingual below tongue
Saliva
Secretion of salivary glands
Secreted with ingestion, memory, smell of food
Ptylin converts starch into sugar
Pharynx (Throat)
Posterior of nose, mouth & larynx
Musculo membranous tube

Swallowing
Voluntary and Involuntary stages

Voluntary
Bolus formation
By movement of tongue and cheeks
Bolus pushed into pharynx
Involuntary
Soft palate raised up & closes nasal passage
Glottis contracts and closes
Larynx lifted upwards and forwards
Food passes to Oesophagus
Breathing ceases during this step

Stomach
Dilated part of Digestive system
Lies in upper abdomen below diaphragm
Slightly left to midline
Upper opening connected to Oesophagus
Lower opening connected to Duodenum
Both remain closed during gastric digestion
J shaped in standing position
Elastic muscular bag with capacity of 2 liters
3 muscular layer- vertical, circular, oblique

Functions of the Stomach
Storage of food for 3 hours
Partial digestion of proteins and fats
Semi digested food from stomach enters the
Duodenum
Oesophagus
25cm long muscular tube
From pharynx to stomach
Behind trachea and in front of vertebral column
Major part passes to Thorax
Food passes to stomach by active muscular action
Solid food reaches stomach in 7 to 8 seconds
Liquids reaches stomach in 2 to 3 seconds


Small intestine
6 to 7 meter long, 2.5cm diameter
Lies in center of abdomen
Divided into 3 parts
First part Duodenum
Second part Jejunum
Third part ileum
Alkaline Secretions
Protects from acid contents of stomach
Small intestine
Mucosa
Deeply folded to increase the surface area
Helps in absorption of food.
Large intestine
1.5meter long, 5 to 6cm diameter
Divided into 3 parts
Right ascending colon
Transverse colon
Left descending colon
Sigmoid Colon & Rectum
Temporary storage of faeces
Anus is guarded by external & internal
sphincters
Liver
Functions
Synthesis of bile
Formation of urea
Detoxification of drugs
Destruction of RBC
Storage of excess glucose in form of glycogen
Storage of Vitamin A & D
Storage of Hemoglobin
Manufacturing of blood proteins, albumin & globulin
Manufacturing of prothrombin & fibrinogen

Gall bladder
Stores the liver bile (60ml)

Pancreas
Located in upper abdomen behind the stomach
Right part in the C of Duodenum
Extends to the left up to the spleen
Manufactures digestive enzymes
Manufactures insulin

Respiratory System
Human Respiratory System
Components of the Upper
Respiratory Tract
Passageway for respiration
Receptors for smell
Filters incoming air to filter larger foreign
material
Moistens and warms incoming air
Resonating chambers for voice
Upper Respiratory Tract
Functions
Components of the Lower
Respiratory Tract
Functions:
Larynx: maintains an open airway, routes food
and air appropriately, assists in sound production
Trachea: transports air to and from lungs
Bronchi: branch into lungs
Lungs: transport air to alveoli for gas exchange
Lower Respiratory Tract
Gas Exchange Between the Blood
and Alveoli
Respiratory Cycle
Figure 10.9
Inspiration/Inhalation
Diaphragm & Intercostal muscles
Increases volume in thoracic cavity as
muscles contract
Volume of lungs increases
Intrapulmonary pressure decreases (758
mm Hg)
Expiration/Exhalation
Muscles relax
Volume of thoracic cavity decreases
Volume of lungs decreases
Intrapulmonary pressure increases (763
mm Hg)
Forced expiration is active
VENTILATOR TERMS
Measurement of Lung Capacity
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Tidal Volume:- The peak to peak volume
change during a quite breath is the tidal
volume.
Measurement:-
Tidal Volume : 500 ml
Respiratory Rate : 12 breaths/minute
Minute Respiratory Volume :6000 ml/min
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(Cont)
Total lung Capacity:- The largest volume
to which the subjects lungs can be
voluntarily expanded is defined as total
lung capacity.
Measurement:-
Total Lung Capacity : 5900ml
Dead air volume : 150 ml
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(Cont)
Residual Volume(RV):- The smallest
volume to which the subject can slowly
deflate his/her lungs is the residual
volume.
Measurement:-
Residual Volume : 1200 ml
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(Cont)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume(IRV):- The
volume that can be inhaled above tidal
volume.
Measurement:-
Inspiratory Reserve Volume : 3100 ml
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(Cont)
Expiratory Reserve Volume(ERV):- The
volume that can be exhaled below tidal
volume.
Measurement:-
Expiratory Reserve Volume : 1200 ml
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(cont)
Functional Residual Capacity(FRC):-
The volume of the lungs at the end of a
quiet expiration when the respiratory
muscles are relaxed is the Functional
Residual Capacity.
Measurement:-
FRC=ERV+RV
Lung Volumes and
Capacities(Cont)
Vital Capacity:- The maximal volume that
can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.
Measurement:-
Vital Capacity=Tidal volume+ Inspiratory
Reserve Volume+ Expiratory Reserve Volume
Measurement of Lung Capacity
Measurable variables for
respiratory system
Pressure
Gas-flow rate
Lung volume
Transit time for blood in the
pulmonary capillaries
where t = blood transmit time, s
Vc= capillary blood volume, m
3
Vc= total capillary blood flow = cardiac output,m
3
/s
For gas exchange to occur properly in the
lung three important processes are:-
Alveolar ventilation,
The process of diffusion,
Ventilatory perfusion, which involves
pulmonary blood flow
Give rise to new Term:- Ventilation to
perfusion ratio
Gas Partial Pressure
As long as intermolecular interactions are
small, most gases of physiologic
significance can be considered to obey the
ideal gas law:-

where p = pressure, N/m2
V = volume of gas, m3
n = number of moles, mol
R = gas constant, (N m)/(mol K)
T = absolute temperature, K
The ideal gas law can be applied without error up to
atmospheric pressure; it can be applied to a mixture of
gases, such as air, or to its constituents, such as oxygen
or nitrogen. All individual gases in a mixture are
considered to fill the total volume and have the same
temperature but reduced pressures. The pressure
exerted by each individual gas is called the partial
pressure of the gas.
Daltons law states that the total pressure is the sum of
the partial pressures of the constituents of a mixture:

where pi = partial pressure of the ith constituent, N/m2
N = total number of constituents
Dividing the ideal gas law for a constituent
by that for the mixture gives:-

so that

which states that the partial pressure of a
gas may be found if the total pressure,
mole fraction, and ratio of gas constants
are known.

For most respiratory calculations, p will be
considered to be the pressure of 1 atmosphere,
101 kN/m2. Avogadros principle states that
different gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain equal numbers of molecules:

Thus

Gas pressures and volumes can be
measured for many different temperature
and humidity conditions:-
Body Temperature and Pressure, saturated
(BTPS)
Ambient Temperature and Pressure (ATP);
Standard Temperature and Pressure, Dry
(STPD).

Standard Temperature and Pressure,
Dry (STPD)
where p = total pressure, kN/m2
pH2O = vapor pressure of water in atmosphere, kN/m2

and Vi/V as a ratio does not change in the conversion
process.
Gas volume at STPD is converted from ambient
condition volume as:

where Vi = volume of gas i corrected to STPD, m3
Vamb = volume of gas i at ambient temperature and pressure, m3
= ambient temperature, C
p = ambient total pressure, kN/m2
pH2O = vapor pressure of water in the air, kN/m2
Partial pressures and gas volumes may be expressed in BTPS
conditions.
Gas volumes are converted from ambient conditions by
Pulmonary Mechanics
The respiratory system exhibits properties of
resistance, compliance, and inertance
analogous to the electrical properties of
resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
Resistance is the ratio of pressure to flow:

where R = resistance, N s/m5
P = pressure, N/m2
V = volume flow rate, m3/s
Compliance is the ratio of lung volume to lung
pressure:

where C = compliance, m5/N,
V = lung volume/m3
P = pressure, N/m2
The static pressure-volume relationship is
nonlinear, exhibiting decreased static
compliance at the extremes of lung volume

Circulatory System
Blood, Its composition and
function
What do you need to keep
cells alive?
Functioning Heart
Intact vasculature
Adequate blood volume
Adequate red blood cells
Adequate hemoglobin
Proper shape of hemoglobin molecule
Oxygen
94 kab.instru@coep.ac.in
What is blood?
Blood is a connective tissue
Human contain 5 litres on average
8% of body weight is blood
Terminology
Heme, Hemato = blood
Emia = blood condition

Need
Abnormally high or low counts may
indicate the presence of many forms of
disease such as anemia, a bacterial
infection atc
Common Blood tests
A complete blood count (CBC)
Blood chemistry tests
Blood enzyme tests
Blood tests to assess heart disease risk
Functions of Blood
Transport of:
Gases, nutrients, waste products
Processed molecules
Regulatory molecules
Regulation of pH and osmosis
Maintenance of body temperature
Protection against foreign substances
Clot formation

Composition of Blood
Plasma
Water(91%)
Proteins(7%)
Other solutes(2%)
Formed Elements
RBC(4.5-6.2 million)
WBC(5-9 Thousand)
Platelets(250-400 Thousand)
Solutes in plasma
Nutrients
Gases
Ions
Amino Acids
Glucose
Hormones
RBC
Function:- delivering oxygen
(O
2
) to the body tissues via the
blood flow through the
circulatory system.
mature red blood cells are
flexible biconcave disks that lack
a cell nucleus
Approximately a quarter of the
cells in the human body are red
blood cells
The cells develop in the bone
marrow and circulate for about
100120 days in the body
WBC/leukocytes
Function:- defending
the body against both
infectious disease and
foreign materials.
Produced and derived
in the bone marrow.
The number of WBCs
in the blood is often an
indicator of disease.

WBC
Platelets/thrombocytes
Function:- hemostasis and are a natural
source of growth factors.
The average lifespan of a platelet is
normally just 5 to 9 days.
If the number of platelets is too low,
excessive bleeding can occur.
However, if the number of platelets is
too high, blood clots can form
(thrombosis), which may obstruct blood
vessels and result in such events as a
stroke, myocardial infarction, pulmonary
embolism or the blockage of blood
vessels to other parts of the body, such
as the extremities of the arms or legs
Platelet
Anatomy of the heart
The Heart Valves
The tricuspid valve regulates blood
flow between the right atrium and right
ventricle.
The pulmonary valve controls blood
flow from the right ventricle into the
pulmonary arteries
The mitral valve lets oxygen-rich blood
from your lungs pass from the left
atrium into the left ventricle.
The aortic valve lets oxygen-rich blood
pass from the left ventricle into the
aorta, then to the body
Blood circulation via heart
The blood returns from the systemic circulation to
the right atrium and from there goes through the
tricuspid valve to the right ventricle.

It is ejected from the right ventricle through the
pulmonary valve to the lungs.

Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the
left atrium, and from there through the mitral valve
to the left ventricle.

Finally blood is pumped through the aortic valve to the
aorta and the systemic circulation..
Lower body
Upper body
Left
atrium
Right
atrium
Left
ventricle
Right
ventricle
Oxygenated
blood
Deoxygenated
blood
Lung
Conducting System of the heart
Auto-rhythmicity
Small group of specialized neuromuscular cells in the
myocardium initiates and conduct impulses(SA Node)
Intrinsic heart rate depends on
Hormones like adrenalin, thyroxin
Sympathetic, parasympathetic autonomic nerve signal
Temperature
Activity and exercise
Age
Gender
The baroreceptor reflex
Emotional states

SA Node
As the SA node discharges faster than any
other part of the heart, it sets the heart rate
and is called as pacemaker of the heart.
SA Cells
(Electrically
Unstable)
Discharge
(Depolarization)
Recovery
(repolarization)
Electrophysiology of the cardiac muscle cell
Av (Atrioventricular) node
Transmit the electrical signal from atria to
ventricles
Secondary pacemaker
Delay of 0.1 sec

Bundle of HIS
Av Fibers originates from AV node
Divides further into right and left bundle
branches, called purkinje fibers
Bundle of HIS

Cardiac Cycle
Excretory System
Excretion
The process of expulsion of waste products & toxins out
of the body

Excretory organs
Urinary system
Skin
Large intestine
Lung

Organs of Urinary system
Two kidneys
Two ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra

Kidney
Located at the backside of abdominal cavity,
on either side of vertebral column
Bean shape
Size- length 13cm, breadth 6cm,thichness
3cm
Weight- 150gm
Functions of kidney
Expulsion of waste products and toxins
Maintenance of water level in body
To maintain reaction of blood
Expulsion of toxic medicine
To maintain balance of salts and minerals

Functional unit of kidney Nephron
10,00,000 in each kidney

Ureters
Starts from hilum up to urinary bladder
25cms long, 4mm wide
Carries urine to urinary bladder by peristalsis

Urinary bladder
Muscular bag
In the pelvis anterior to rectum in case of male
In the pelvis anterior to uterus in case of female
Collection of urine
Sphincter of bladder voluntary control
300 to 900 ml storage capacity
After 1000 ml voluntary control is lost
Urethra
Male urethra passes through penis, length 25cm
Female urethra opens anterior to vagina, length
2.5 cm
Daily filtration Actual excretion
Water 180 liter 1.5 liter
Salts 700 gm 15 gm
Glucose 170 gm 0
Urea 50 gm 30 gm
Contents of urine
Urine
Daily output 1200 to 1500 ml
95 % water, 5 % salts & organic matter
Urea, uric acid, salts of potassium,
magnesium and calcium
Functions of skin
Protection from injury
Sensation of touch
Regulation of body temperature
Absorption of oil, ointments
Excretion
Regulation of water balance
Production of Vitamin D
To keep the skin & hair smooth, silky & shin
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Communication and coordination
Adapt and respond to changes from both inside and
outside the body
2. Site of reasoning- your brain

3. Two main divisions
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal
cord
Peripheral nervous system- the nerves
Neuron- basic
structural unit of the
nervous system
Dendrites- carry
impulses towards the
cell
Axon-carry impulses
away from the cell
Myelin sheath
Synaptic terminal
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
Nerves are made of many nerve cells
Afferent-sensory nerves carry message to
brain
Efferent-motor neurons carry message
from brain to muscle
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord

Cerebrum-largest
part of brain.
Responsible for
reasoning, thought,
memory, speech,
sensation, etc.
Divided into two
halves.
Further divided into
lobes; occipital,
parietal, temporal
and frontal
Cerebellum-
responsible for
muscle coordination

Brain stem- most
basic functions;
respiration,
swallowing, blood
pressure. Lower part
(medulla oblongata) is
continuous with spinal
cord
Spinal cord- begins at
foramen magnum and
ends at second
lumbar vertebrae

Contains both afferent
(to the brain) and
efferent (motor
neurons- away from
the brain)
Both the brain and spinal cord are covered
by a membrane system called the
meninges
In addition, the brain has four hollow areas
called ventricles. Cerebrospinal fluid is
produced in the ventricles and baths the
brain and spinal column
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic system
12 pairs cranial nerves
31 pairs spinal nerves

Autonomic
Sympathetic
Fight or flight
Parasympathetic
Disorders of the nervous system
Meningitis- inflammation of the linings of
the brain and spinal cord
Encephalitis- inflammation of the brain
Epilepsy-seizure disorder. Excessive
discharge from neurons. 1 in 200 suffer.
Grand mal or petit mal seizures
Cerebral palsy- disturbance in voluntary
muscular action
Parkinsons decreased neurotransmitter
MS multiple sclerosis- autoimmune

Human Anatomy & Physiology

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