Science Technology During Industrial Revolution

Background
In 1750, most people in Europe lived on small farms and produced
most of their needs
by hand. A century later, many people lived in cities and most of their
needs were
produced by complex machines using steam power. The Industrial
Revolution began in
Great Britain and spread to Belgium, France, Germany, the United
States and Japan. It
was a fundamental change in the way goods were produced, and
altered the way people
lived. The Industrial Revolution was a time of scientific and
technological advancement.
Agriculture
The Dutch led the way in improvements for agriculture. They built
dikes to protect
farmland from the seas, and improved fertilizers. The British improved
on many of these
methods, and developed others of their own, including breeding better
livestock to aid in
work and mixing different soils to yield a better crop. Jethro Tull, a
British farmer and
inventor, created the mechanical seed drill to aid in planting.
Energy
Britain experienced a revolution in energy use as they switched from
animal power, to
water power, to steam power in a few short years. In 1712, Thomas
Newcomen
developed a steam engine powered by coal. This engine was used to
pump water out of
mines. Later, James Watt would improve on this engine, and Watt's
steam engine would
be the power source of the Industrial Revolution.
New Technology
Once steam power became prominent, most machines used in the
production of cloth
became "powered". This includes the Spinning Jenny used to make
thread, and power
looms that combined the thread to make cloth. Other uses for steam
power dealt with
transportation, such as the steam locomotive. Within a few short years
of the start of the
Industrial Revolution, Great Britain had miles of track all across the
country. This
resulted in a great need for iron track & nails, which in turn led to
improvements in iron
production.
Urbanization
As a result of industrialization, people moved to towns and cities to be
closer to the
factories. Conditions were very poor during the early part of the
Industrial Revolution, as
factory workers lived in over crowded buildings, with no sewage or
sanitation services.
This resulted in widespread disease. As the Industrial Revolution
moved forward, new
improvements in sanitation, housing construction, and medicine made
life much better
for the industrial worker.
Science and Technology in 19th Century
The last half of the nineteenth century was a period which experienced
rapid progress in
science and technology. There were important breakthroughs in: iron
and steel
technology, electricity.
From VTS to STS
The STS program (originally called VTS, the Program in Values,
Technology and
Society) was launched in 1971 by the religious studies scholar William
Clebsch,
philosopher Philip Rhinelander and engineers Walter Vincenti and
Stephen Kline. While
there was no dearth of research in the sciences and engineering, they
wanted to promote
more inquiry into how these forces shaped and transformed society.
"Not only is Stanford situated in the heart of Silicon Valley, but really
Stanford, as an
institution, has played an important role in the history of 20th-century
science," Findlen
said. "The university has also been a key contributor to the growth of
technology in postwar
America, and is strongly situated to have a program that takes a multi-
dimensional
view."
University and college programs that focus on the relationship between
science,
technology and society have been on the rise nationwide. There are
now STS programs at
MIT, Cornell, Penn State, North Carolina State University, Vassar,
Virginia Tech and the
Claremont Colleges, among others, and abroad at schools such as York
University in
Canada, the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands, the
universities of Wollongong
and New South Wales in Australia. .
While many such programs offer bachelor of arts degrees or the
equivalent, Stanford's is
one of the very few if not the only one that also offers a bachelor of
science degrees.
And while many STS programs focuses almost exclusively on the
history, policy and
social ramifications of science, Stanford's also requires an
understanding of hard science
fulfillment of a technical-literacy requirement for students pursing a
B.A. and a technicaldepth
requirement for those pursing a B.S. McGinn said he believes this
balance is both
distinctive to Stanford's program and makes it attractive to students
and faculty.
"[STS] was one of the best things I did at Stanford," said Edmond Toy,
who graduated in
1993 and is now working toward his doctorate at Harvard's Program for
Health Policy. "It
helped me appreciate that fact that practically all of the most
important issues facing
policy-makers are interdisciplinary."
Now, 30 years after its inception, STS, which started in the equivalent
of one of those
famous Silicon Valley garages, has become a distinctive feature of the
university's from
below for three decades," McGinn said. "Finally it is a major whose time
has come."
"Not only is Stanford situated in the heart of Silicon Valley, but really
Stanford, as an
institution, has played an important role in the history of 20th-century
science," Findlen
said. "The university has also been a key contributor to the growth of
technology in postwar
America, and is strongly situated to have a program that takes a multi-
dimensional
view."
University and college programs that focus on the relationship between
science,
technology and society have been on the rise nationwide. There are
now STS programs at
MIT, Cornell, Penn State, North Carolina State University, Vassar,
Virginia Tech and the
Claremont Colleges, among others, and abroad at schools such as York
University in
Canada, the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands, the
universities of Wollongong
and New South Wales in Australia. .
While many such programs offer bachelor of arts degrees or the
equivalent, Stanford's is
one of the very few if not the only one that also offers a bachelor of
science degrees.
And while many STS programs focuses almost exclusively on the
history, policy and
social ramifications of science, Stanford's also requires an
understanding of hard science
fulfillment of a technical-literacy requirement for students pursing a
B.A. and a technicaldepth
requirement for those pursing a B.S. McGinn said he believes this
balance is both
distinctive to Stanford's program and makes it attractive to students
and faculty.
"[STS] was one of the best things I did at Stanford," said Edmond Toy,
who graduated in
1993 and is now working toward his doctorate at Harvard's Program for
Health Policy. "It
helped me appreciate that fact that practically all of the most
important issues facing
policy-makers are interdisciplinary."
Now, 30 years after its inception, STS, which started in the equivalent
of one of those
famous Silicon Valley garages, has become a distinctive feature of the
whose time has
come."
from Apollo 17. The second half of the 20th century saw an increase of
interest in both
space exploration and the environmental movement.
The period witnessed radical changes in many areas of human
endeavors. first decade of
the 20th century, Einstein produced the theory university's academic
landscape.
"STS has been percolating up from below for three decades," McGinn
said. "Finally it is
a major of the conversion of mass into energy, E=mC(2), which was
confivations. social
sciences, the study of Sociology was conceived by Auguste Comte,
who wrote of a
heirarchy of knowledge:
1. Theological (fictitious)
2. (metaphysical)
3. Scientific (positivist)
Each level of knowledge was said to be more sophisticated than the
preceding level.
In Psychology, Sigmund Freud looked for explanations for individual
human behavior
beyond the rational level. He understood people to be motivated by a
superego (a
conscience), an ego (the rational mind), and an id (subconscious
motivation).
In Biology, Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution. Traveling
on a long
voyage on the Beagle, he had the opportunity to observe great
varieties of different
species of life, some of which did not exist in England. He kept
voluminous records
which he later used to develop his theory.
Essentially, he said that each of the surviving species had madetheory,
when applied to
human beings is more difficult to prove because of the relatively long
time span of a
human generation and the ability of humans to adapt through their
culture rather than
through genetic changes. Nevertheless, recent archeological research
has brought us
closer to identification of the missing links in human evolution.
The theory, when applied to human beings, was controversial because
it contradicted
religious beliefs. The latest challenge to the theory of evolution came
in the form of a
concept known as Intelligent Design or Creationism, which makes the
claim that there
must have been an intelligent being who designed the myriads of
creatures found in
nature.
There also have been distortions and misinterpretations of Darwin.
Social Darwinism,
which theorized a struggle for survival of the fittest within Scientific
discoveries, such as
the theory of relativity and quantum physics, drastically changed the
world-view of
scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was much more
complex than
previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of the 19th
century that the last few
details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. Accelerating
scientific
understanding, more efficient communications, and faster
transportation transformed the
world in those hundred years more rapidly and widely than at any time
in the past. It was
a century that started with steam-powered ships and ended with the
space shuttle. Horses
and other pack animals, Western society's basic form of personal
transportation for
thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles within the span of a
few decades.
These developments were made possible by the large-scale
exploitation of petroleum
resources, which offered great amounts of energy in an easily portable
and storable liquid
form, but also caused widespread concerns about pollution and our
long-term impact on
the environment. Humanity explored outer space for the first time,
even taking their first
footsteps on the Moon.
Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology
(especially the Internet)
put the world's knowledge at the disposal of nearly anyone in most
industrialized
societies. Many peoples's view of the world changed significantly as
they became much
more aware of the suffering and struggles of others and, as such,
became increasingly
concerned with human rights. In the latter half of the century
especially, mankind became
aware of the vast scale on which it had affected the planet, and took
steps to minimize its
damage of the planet's fragile ecosystems. Advancements in medical
technology also
improved the welfare of many people on the planet; life expectancy
increased
dramatically from the mid-30s to the mid-60s worldwide during the
century. The
healthiest countries had life expectancies of over 80 years by the turn
of the millennium.
Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to
reach an
unprecedented scale; World War II alone killed over 60 million people,
while nuclear
weaponry gave mankind the means to destroy itself in a very short
amount of time. The
world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with
developments in
transportation and communications technology, popular music and
other influences of
Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a
true global economy
by the end of the century
The Earth seen from Apollo 17. The second half of the 20th century
saw an increase of
interest in both space exploration and the environmental movement.
The twentieth century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1901
and ended on
December 31, 2000, according to the Gregorian calendar.[1] The
century saw a remarkable
shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result of
technological, medical,
social, ideological, and political innovation. Arguably more
technological advances
occurred in any ten-year period following World War I than the sum
total of new
technological development in any century before the industrial
revolution. Terms like
ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common
usage.
The period witnessed radical changes in many areas of human
endeavors. Scientific
discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics,
drastically changed the
world-view of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was
much more
complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes at the end of
the 19th century
that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled
in. Accelerating
scientific understanding, more efficient communications, and faster
transportation
transformed the world in those hundred years more rapidly and widely
than at any time in
the past. It was a century that started with steam-powered ships and
ended with the space
shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, Western society's basic form of
personal
transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles
within the span of a
few decades. These developments were made possible by the large-
scale exploitation of
petroleum resources, which offered great amounts of energy in an
easily portable and
storable liquid form, but also caused widespread concerns about
pollution and our longterm
impact on the environment. Humanity explored outer space for the first
time, even
taking their first footsteps on the Moon.
Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology
(especially the Internet)
put the world's knowledge at the disposal of nearly anyone in most
industrialized
societies. Many peoples's view of the world changed significantly as
they became much
more aware of the suffering and struggles of others and, as such,
became increasingly
concerned with human rights. In the latter half of the century
especially, mankind became
aware of the vast scale on which it had affected the planet, and took
steps to minimize its
damage of the planet's fragile ecosystems. Advancements in medical
technology also
improved the welfare of many people on the planet; life expectancy
increased
dramatically from the mid-30s to the mid-60s worldwide during the
century. The
healthiest countries had life expectancies of over 80 years by the turn
of the millennium.
Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to
reach an
unprecedented scale; World War II alone killed over 60 million people,
while nuclear
weaponry gave mankind the means to destroy itself in a very short
amount of time. The
world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with
developments in
transportation and communications technology, popular music and
other influences of
Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a
true global economy
by the end of the century
 Early spinning machine James watt

Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution

A revolution in agriculture in the 1700s created conditions that favored the

Industrial Revolution.Farmers began growing new crops and using new technology
such as the seed drill and the iron plow. Increased food production improved
people's diet and health, which in turn contributed to rapid population growth.
Better farming methods meant that fewer people were needed to farm. As a result,
unemployed farmers formed a large new labor force.

The factory system.

The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry, where a series of inventions
created new demands for laborers. Between 1733 and 1793, inventors produced new
machines, such as the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, and a water-powered loom,
that speeded up the spinning and weaving of wool and cotton. Many new machines
were powered by running water, so inventors built spinning mills near rivers and
hired many workers to run the machines. The new machines led to the growth of the
factory system, which brought workers and machines together in one place to
manufacture goods. By the late 1700s, steam began to replace water as a source of
power. Inventors such as Thomas Newcomen and James Watt improved the steam-
powered engine. Steam engines gave a boost to two other industries that were
essential to the Industrial Revolution&emdash;coal and iron. New processes were
developed to produce stronger iron. In the mid-1800s, Henry Bessemer developed a
process to improve the production of steel, a mixture of iron and other materials.
Steel triggered the growth of still other industries.
Improvements in transportation and communication.

During the Industrial Revolution, advances were made in transportation and

communication. In Britain, roads made of longer-lasting surfaces and canals
connected all parts of the nation. A mining engineer, George Stephenson, developed
the first steam-powered locomotive, opening the way for the building of railroads.
Railroads and steam-powered ships improved transportation around the world. In
1837, an American inventor, Samuel F.B. Morse, devised the telegraph, which
revolutionized communications.

Why Britain took the lead.

Great Britain enjoyed many advantages that helped it take the lead in the Industrial
Revolution. It had plentiful iron and coal resources and a good transportation
system. It was a leading commercial power so merchants had the capital to invest in
new enterprises. It had colonies that supplied raw materials and bought finished
goods. The British government encouraged improvements in transportation and
used its navy~ to protect British trade. Finally, the British accepted the idea that
people could move ahead in society by hard work and talent.

The Industrial Revolution Spreads.

After the 1850s, the Industrial Revolution entered a new phase as Belgium, France,
Germany, the United States, and later Japan industrialized rapidly. The French
government supported projects to improve transportation. After Germany became
unified in the 1870s, its industries forged ahead.

The United States used its vast natural resources as well as capital from European
investors to build railroads and set up iron and steel industries. By the 1890s, the
United States had overtaken Great Britain as the world's leading industrial nation.
The nations of southern and eastern Europe, however, remained largely
agricultural.

A Brief Survey of World History. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. (pp. c43-45).
 Horizontal British Steam Engine George Stephenson's "Rocket" 1829

Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For modern textile manufacturing, see Textile manufacturing.

With the establishment of overseas colonies, the British Empire at the end of the 17th
century/beginning of the 18th century had a vast source of raw materials and a vast
market for manufactured goods. The manufacture of goods was performed on a limited
scale by individual workers – usually on their own premises (such as weavers' cottages) –
and was transported around the country by horse and cart, or by river boat. Power was
supplied by draught animals for agriculture and haulage.

There was a marketplace to service, but the scale of industry; the sources of energy; and
the lack of an inland communications infrastructure were the unseen hurdles to
overcome.

In this context, the scene was set for the Kingdom of Great Britain to develop the
industry of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Background
• 2 Industry and invention
• 3 Workers

• 4 Export of technology

[edit] Background

The key British industry at the beginning of the 18th century was the production of
textiles made with wool from the large sheep-farming areas in the Midlands and across
the country (created as a result of land-clearance and inclosure). Handlooms and spinning
wheels were the tools of the trade of the weavers in their cottages, and this was a labour-
intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain, with major centres being the
West Country; Norwich and environs; and the West Riding of Yorkshire. The export trade
in woolen goods accounted for more than a quarter of British exports during most of the
18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770 [1]. Exports of the cotton industry –
centred in Lancashire – had grown tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a
tenth of the value of the woollen trade.

[edit] Industry and invention

The Industrial Revolution, in this logic, has been a worldwide occurrence, at least insofar
as it has occurred in all those parts of the world, of which there are few exceptions, where
the control of Western civilization has been felt. Away from any hesitation it occurred
first in Britain, and its effects spread only gradually to continental Europe and North
America. Equally clearly, the Industrial Revolution that eventually transformed these
parts of the Western world surpassed in magnitude the achievements of Britain, and the
process was carried further to change radically the socioeconomic life of the Far East,
Africa, Latin America, and Australasia. The reasons for this succession of events are
complex, but they were implicit in the earlier account of the buildup toward rapid
industrialization. Partly through good fortune and partly through conscious effort, Britain
by the early 18th century came to possess the combination of social needs and social
resources that provided the necessary preconditions of commercially successful
innovation and a social system capable of sustaining and institutionalizing the processes
of rapid technological change once they had started. Therefore be concerned, in the first
place, with events in Britain, although in discussing later phases of the period it will be
necessary to trace the way in which British technical achievements were diffused and
superseded in other parts of the Western world.

In 1733 in Bury, Lancashire, John Kay invented the flying shuttle — one of the first of a
series of inventions associated with the cotton industry. The flying shuttle increased the
width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom. Resistance by
workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this
technology, even though the higher rate of production generated an increased demand for
spun cotton.

In 1738, Lewis Paul (one of the community of Huguenot weavers that had been driven
out of France in a wave of religious persecution) settled in Birmingham and with John
Wyatt, of that town, they patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin
system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that
travelled at different speeds yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. This
was later used in the first cotton spinning mill during the Industrial Revolution.

1742: Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine
powered by donkey; this was not profitable and soon closed.

1743: A factory opened in Northampton, fifty spindles turned on five of Paul and Wyatt's
machines proving more successful than their first mill. This operated until 1764.

1748: Lewis Paul invented the hand driven carding machine. A coat of wire slips were
placed around a card which was then wrapped around a cylinder. Lewis's invention was
later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton, although this
came about under great suspicion after a fire at Daniel Bourn's factory in Leominster
which specifically used Paul and Wyatt's spindles. Bourn produced a similar patent in the
same year.

1758: Paul and Wyatt based in Birmingham improved their roller spinning machine and
took out a second patent. Richard Arkwright later used this as the model for his water
frame.

1762 Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth,
Birmingham. His partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt made the steam engine
into the power plant of the Industrial Revolution and was to provide many mills with a
new form of power.

In 1764, James Hargreaves is credited as inventor of the spinning jenny which multiplied
the spun thread production capacity of a single worker — initially eightfold and
subsequently much further. Sources [2] credit the original invention to Thomas Highs,
who had a daughter named Jenny for whom the invention might have been named.
Industrial unrest and a failure to patent the invention until 1770 forced Hargreaves from
Blackburn, but his lack of protection of the idea allowed the concept to be exploited by
others. As a result, there were over 20,000 Spinning Jennies in use by the time of his
death.

Again in 1764, the first cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton, Lancashire,
England.
In 1771, Richard Arkwright used waterwheels to power looms for the production of
cotton cloth, his invention becoming known as the water frame. (Frame is another name
for the machinery for spinning or weaving.) The water frame was developed from the
spinning frame that Arkwright had developed with (a different) John Kay, from
Warrington. (The original design was probably by Thomas Highs, again.) This he had
patented in 1769 (see [3]: Press the 'Ingenious' button and use search key '10302171' for
the patent). Initial attempts at driving the frame had used horse power, but the innovation
of using a waterwheel demanded a location with a ready supply of water. One of the first
cotton mills (at Cromford, Derbyshire; preserved as part of the Derwent Valley Mills)
was a factory in the vein of the Soho Manufactory. Arkwright protected his investment
(from industrial rivals and potentially disruptive workers), and generated jobs for which
workers' accommodations were constructed, leading to a sizeable industrial community.
Arkwright expanded his operations to other areas of the country.

In 1779, Samuel Crompton of Bolton combined elements of the spinning jenny and water
frame to create the spinning mule. This produced a stronger thread, and was suitable for
mechanisation on a grand scale. As with Kay and Hargreaves, Crompton was not able to
exploit his invention for his own profit, and died a pauper.

In 1784, Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom, and produced a prototype in the
following year. His initial venture to exploit this technology failed, although his advances
were recognised by others in the industry. Others – such as Robert Grimshaw (whose
factory was destroyed in 1790 as part of the growing reaction against the mechanization
of the industry) and Austin [4] – developed the ideas further.

In 1803, William Radcliffe invented the dressing frame (patented under the name of
Thomas Johnson) which enabled power looms to operate continuously, and this fueled
the take-off of steam-powered weaving such that by 1823 there were estimated to be
10,000 power looms in operation in Great Britain.

The use of water power to drive mills was quickly adopted by many entrepreneurs, and
one example is Samuel Greg. He joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on
taking over the company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill. Quarry Bank
Mill in Cheshire still exists as a well preserved museum, having been in use from its
construction in 1784 until 1959. It illustrates how the mill owners exploited child labour,
taking orphans from nearby Manchester, but also shows that these children were housed,
clothed, fed and provided with some education. This mill also shows the transition from
water power to steam power, with steam engines to drive the looms being installed in
1810.

[edit] Workers

Working conditions in some early British textile factories were unfavorable relative to
modern standards. Children, men, and women regularly volunteered for 68-hour work
weeks. Factories often were not well ventilated and became very hot in the summer.
Worker health and safety regulations were non-existent. Workers who suffered
debilitating injuries from work were simply dismissed without any compensation.[citation
needed]
People may have chosen to work at these factories because other work for unskilled,
landless persons was less consistent throughout the year and from year to year, and
offered less possibility for earnings growth for those who adapted well to the work.

Textile factories organized workers' lives much differently from craft production.
Handloom weavers worked at their own pace, with their own tools, and within their own
cottages. Factories set hours of work, and the machinery within them shaped the pace of
work. Factories brought workers together within one building to work on machinery that
they did not own. Factories also increased the division of labor. They narrowed the
number and scope of tasks and included children and women within a common
production process. Factories flourished over manual craftsmanship because they had
more efficient production output per worker, keeping prices down for the public, and they
had much more consistent quality of product.

The early textile factories employed a large share of children, but the share declined over
time. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered
cotton mills were described as children. By 1835, the share of the workforce under 18
years of age in cotton mills in England and Scotland had fallen to 43%. About half of
workers in Manchester and Stockport cotton factories surveyed in 1818 and 1819 began
work at under ten years of age. [5] Most of the adult workers in cotton factories in mid-
19th century Britain were workers who had begun work as child labourers. The growth of
this experienced adult factory workforce helps to account for the shift away from child
labour in textile factories.

[edit] Export of technology

While profiting from expertise arriving from overseas (e.g. Louis Paul), Britain was very
protective of home-grown technology. In particular, engineers with skills in constructing
the textile mills and machinery were not permitted to emigrate — particularly to the
fledgeling America.

Following the creation of the United States, an engineer who had worked as an apprentice
to Arkwright's partner Jedediah Strutt evaded the ban. In 1789, Samuel Slater took his
skills in designing and constructing factories to New England, and he was soon engaged
in reproducing the textile mills that helped America with its own industrial revolution.

Local inventions spurred this on, and in 1793 Eli Whitney invented and patented the
cotton gin, which sped up the processing of raw cotton by over 50 times. An Uxbridge,
Massachusetts farmer by the name of Richard Mowry successfully built and marketed the
equipment needed to manufacture woolen, linen or cotton cloth. [1] The first use of power
looms in wool manufacture in America was at the Capron Mill in Uxbridge.[2] The
original mill was built in 1820, by John Capron, the father of Colonel John Capron, on
the Mumford River at Uxbridge Center.[2] [3] This title was also held by the Draper
corporation in Hopedale, Massachusetts. These communities are in the Blackstone Valley,
where Samuel Slater established his first Mill.
Imp inventions/discoveries during the industrial
revolution in england?
the need for these inventions
which do you think is the most important invention of all n why?
As the flying shuttle sped up weaving, the demand for cotton yarn increased. Many
inventors set to work to improve the spinning wheel. James Hargreaves, a weaver who
was also a carpenter, patented his spinning jenny in 1770. It enabled one worker to run
eight spindles instead of one.

About the same time Richard Arkwright developed his water frame, a machine for
spinning with rollers operated by water power. In 1779 Samuel Crompton, a spinner,
combined Hargreaves' jenny and Arkwright's roller frame into a spinning machine, called
a mule. It produced thread of greater fineness and strength than the jenny or the roller
frame. Since the roller frame and the mule were large and heavy, it became the practice to
install them in mills, where they could be run by water power. They were tended by
women and children.These improvements in spinning machinery called for further
improvements in weaving. In 1785 Edmund Cartwright patented a power loom. In spite
of the need for it, weaving machinery came into use very slowly. First, many
improvements had to be made before the loom was satisfactory. Second, the hand
weavers violently opposed its adoption because it threw many of them out of work. Those
who got jobs in the factories were obliged to take the same pay as unskilled workers.
Thus they rioted, smashed the machines, and tried to prevent their use. The power loom
was only coming into wide operation in the cotton industry by 1813. It did not completely
replace the hand loom in weaving cotton until 1850. It was not well adapted to the
making of some woolens. As late as 1880 many hand looms were still in use for weaving
woolen cloth.Many other machines contributed to the progress of the textile industry. In
1785 Thomas Bell of Glasgow invented cylinder printing of cotton goods. This was a
great improvement on block printing. It made successive impressions of a design “join
up” and did the work more rapidly and more cheaply. In 1793 the available supply of
cotton was increased by Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin (see Whitney, Eli). In
1804 J.M. Jacquard, a Frenchman, perfected a loom on which patterns might be woven in
fabrics by mechanical means. This loom was later adapted to the making of lace, which
became available to everyone (see Lace).Watt's Steam Engine

While textile machinery was developing, progress was being made in other directions. In
1763 James Watt, a Scottish mechanic, was asked to repair a model of a Newcomen
steam engine. He saw how crude and inefficient it was and by a series of improvements
made it a practical device for running machinery.

Wheels turned by running water had been the chief source of power for the early
factories. These were necessarily situated on swift-running streams. When the steam
engine became efficient, it was possible to locate factories in more convenient places.The
first users of steam engines were the coal and iron industries. They were destined to be
basic industries in the new age of machinery. As early as 1720 many steam engines were
in operation. In coal mines they pumped out the water which usually flooded the deep
shafts. In the iron industry they pumped water to create the draft in blast furnaces.

The iron industry benefited also from other early inventions of the 18th century. Iron was
scarce and costly, and production was falling off because England's forests could not
supply enough charcoal for smelting the ore. Ironmasters had long been experimenting
with coal as a fuel for smelting. Finally the Darby family, after three generations of effort,
succeeded with coal that had been transformed into coke. This created a new demand for
coal and laid the foundation for the British coal industry. The next great steps were taken
in the 1780s, when Henry Cort developed the processes of puddling and rolling. Puddling
produced nearly pure malleable iron. Hand in hand with the adoption of the new
inventions went the rapid development of the factory system of manufacture.