Introduction

Cathodic protection is an electrochemical technique for preventing corrosion of a metal exposed to an electrolyte. The process involves application of DC electrical current to the metal surface from an external source. The external source can be either a commercial power source or through connection to sacrificial metals such as magnesium or aluminum. It is used extensively in preventing corrosion to underground and submerged steel structures; such as pipelines, production well casings, and tanks. Effective application of cathodic protection can provide complete protection to any exposed areas for the life of the structure. The combination of an external coating and cathodic protection provides the most economical and effective choice for protection of underground and submerged pipelines. For bare or ineffectively coated existing pipeline systems, cathodic protection often becomes the only practical alternative for corrosion protection. Cathodic protection is a mandated requirement of federal and state regulations governing underground transmission pipeline, gas distribution systems, and underground petroleum tanks. These requirements include installation, monitoring, and maintenance of cathodic protection systems.

Process of Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection essentially means the reduction or elimination of corrosion on a metal surface by forcing the metal to become a cathode. The two general types of cathodic protection systems are impressed current and sacrificial. Both types of systems can effectively transfer the corrosion reaction (oxidation) from the metal surface to an external anode. If all exposed parts of a structure become cathodic with respect to the electrolyte, corrosion of the structure is eliminated.

Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection

Sacrificial cathodic protection occurs when a metal is coupled to a more reactive (anodic) metal. This connection is referred to as a galvanic couple. In order to effectively transfer corrosion from the metal structure, the anode material must have a large enough natural voltage difference to produce an electrical current flow. Effective application of cathodic protection can provide complete protection to any exposed areas for the life of the structure. The combination of an external coating and cathodic protection provides the most economical and effective choice for protection of underground and submerged pipelines. For bare or ineffectively coated existing pipeline systems, cathodic protection often becomes the only practical alternative for corrosion protection.

Three metals are commonly utilized for cathodic protection of steel. The selection of the anodic metal is dependent upon resistivity and electrolyte. A general application guide for these metals are: Magnesium - soil and freshwater applications Zinc - low resistivity soils and saltwater Aluminum - saltwater and limited freshwater applications

An advantage of sacrificial anode systems is the flexibility in application. Anodes can be installed in a variety of applications and configurations. No outside power is required for cathodic protection to be effective. Another advantage is the minimal maintenance required for these systems to function. Disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems include the limited protection current available and limited life. Sacrificial anodes are subject to rapid corrosion (consumption) and require replacement on a regular basis. Typical design life of a pipeline system anode is five to ten years.

Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

Impressed current cathodic protection involves the application of an external DC current through long-lasting anodes. A typical source of power for an impressed current system is AC power converted to DC by a rectifier. In order to be effective, impressed current anodes must be designed for long life at high current output. This requires selection of materials with very low corrosion (consumption) rates. The typical expectation of impressed current anode life is over twenty years. Anode materials that have proven to be suitable for impressed current systems include treated graphite, high silicon cast iron, mixed

metal oxide, and to a lesser extent platinum and magnetite. Anodes are normally installed in grouped configurations in the electrolyte. These groupings (both horizontal and vertical) in an underground application are called groundbeds. The groundbeds are connected to the power by a positive cable to the power source. A negative cable connects the power source to the structure.

Advantages of impressed current systems include the unlimited current opportunities and longer life. Impressed current systems are typically installed where the structure to be protected is large, requiring higher levels of current. Disadvantages include the requirement for an outside power source and higher maintenance requirements. Outside power might come from sources such as commercial AC converted to DC through a rectifier, thermoelectric generator, or solar panels. A significantly higher monitoring and maintenance effort is required by comparison to sacrificial anode systems.

Cathodic Protection Applications

Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to most steel structures in consistent contact with a corrosive electrolyte. Commonly protected structures include buried pipelines, underground tanks (UST's), aboveground tank bottoms (AST's), well casings, internal surfaces of tanks and treating vessels, and off-shore structures. Underground Pipelines are the primary market for cathodic protection. Both sacrificial and impressed current systems are used. Federal and state regulations require cathodic protection for most petroleum or gas pipeline systems. Underground Storage Tanks (UST's) used for fuel are now required by EPA to either have functional cathodic protection systems or to be of a non-corrosive material. Both types of systems are widely used. Aboveground Storage Tank (AST's) bottoms can be protected from soil-side corrosion with cathodic protection. Most major tank operators include cathodic protection in their corrosion control program. Unique problems involved with tank applications include the

difficulty of distributing current uniformly over the tank bottom and monitoring the effectiveness of the systems. Production Well Casings usually require impressed current systems due to higher current requirements. The economics of cathodic protection are excellent until production volumes decline and fields near the end of their effective life. This application of cathodic protection is common; but tends to be concentrated in established fields with known corrosion history. Internal surfaces of tanks and vessels are commonly protected by cathodic protection systems. With some exceptions, most of these utilize sacrificial anodes. Possible applications range from heater-treaters, heat exchangers, water storage tanks, and hot water heaters. Offshore structures such as production platforms, docks, and pipelines are almost always protected with

Cathodic Protection Criteria

Cathodic protection is considered to be effective when active corrosion is transferred from the metal surface to the installed anode. The effectiveness of the transference can be determined by electrical measurements. Industry accepted criteria for effective protection using these measurements are fully described in various NACE International publications including the Standard Recommended Practice "RP0169-96 Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems". Of the available techniques, the primary measurement used by industry to determine effectiveness of protection is known as the -0.850 volt, pipe-to-soil potential criteria. This technique measures the voltage difference between the protected structure and a copper-copper sulfate electrode placed in or on the electrolyte near the structure. If the voltage difference is more negative than -0.850 volts, then the structure is considered protected. If the value is more positive than -0.850 volts, the structure is either unprotected or only partially protected. Normal values of unprotected steel in soil typically range from -0.500 to -0.700 volts with respect to copper sulfate. The interpretation of pipeto-soil potentials requires consideration of the effects of measurement errors such as IR drop in the soil between the pipe and the electrode. The most common consideration of this effect is through an "instant off" measurement obtained by interrupting current sources. Other techniques include potential measurement at permanent "coupon type test stations".

Design Considerations
There are four primary questions to be answered when designing a cathodic protection system. How much current is necessary? What source of direct current should be used? How should installation be designed? How can effectiveness be measured?

Limitations of cathodic protection must be recognized during the design process. Cathodic protection will be effective only on metal surfaces in continual contact to the electrolyte. Aboveground structures will not be protected. The distribution of current to desired areas becomes difficult

in congested or remote areas. Examples include multiple pipeline right-of-ways and storage tank bottoms. Multiple variables should be considered during the design process. Two primary factors include the effectiveness of an external coating and resistivity of the electrolyte. The existence of a high quality coating minimizes current requirements of a structure and greatly influences the design. Electrolyte resistivity affects the choice between sacrificial and impressed current as well as the type of groundbed. Other design factors include foreign system interference, power availability, maintenance requirements, and economics.

Technical Information
Impressed Current Anode Review
History
The origins of cathodic protection date to the days of Sir Humphry Davy with the use of sacrificial anodes on ship hulls. Virtually all of the early efforts in cathodic protection were related to sacrificial anode systems. In one of the first documented attempts to use impressed current, Thomas Edison tried to apply current onto ship hulls in the 1890's. He had trouble with selection of suitable anode materials and power supplies. It wasn't until the 1920's that the commercial use of impressed current systems appears to have begun. The development and use of impressed anode materials has gone through three general phases. Prior to World War II, the principal anode materials were iron, steel, and carbon. After World War II, graphite and cast iron anodes were developed. The 1960's brought on the development of dimensionally stable anodes. These anodes include the precious metals and ceramic anode materials. The development of new anode materials continues. Even today however; many of the early anode materials are still in widespread use.

Reactions
Anodic reactions occur at the surface of anodes in a corrosion cell. Although there are several possible reactions, gas evolution is the primary oxidation effect of impressed current systems. The two primary anodic reactions in impressed current systems are chlorine evolution and oxygen evolution. Chlorine evolution occurs when an anode is in the presence of chloride ions. This reaction will predominate in seawater and high chloride environments. The chlorine evolution reaction is: 2CL Cl2 + 2e-

Chlorine gas then reacts with water to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid.

Oxygen evolution occurs in low chloride ion concentrations or when sulfate ions are present. This occurs in underground applications where chloride ion depletion and restriction of ion migration allows the oxygen evolution reaction to dominate. The oxygen evolution reactions are: 2H2O 2SO4 + 2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e& 2H2SO4 + O2 + 4e-

These anodic reactions decrease the pH of the solution in the vicinity of the anode. Anodic consumption of coke carbon particles also contribute to lowering pH of the anode environment. Anodic environments with a pH as low as 1.0 have been observed. In order to be effective, anode materials must be resistant to acid attack.

Anode Material
Effective impressed current anodes should possess the following qualities: Good electrical properties Mechanically tough Economical Easily formed into useable shapes Low consumption rates through wide range of environments

Any material possessing these properties could be used as an impressed current anode. Materials that have been utilized in commercial applications are: Steel Graphite Cast Iron Platinum Mixed Metal Oxide Conductive Polymer Lead Magnetite

Steel
The first known appearance of iron or steel as an anode were installations of iron "wastage plates" in the early 1900's in condensers and boilers. Although unintentional, steel acted as an anode on some early DC traction systems. Many of the corrosion failures experienced on these systems were due to DC current discharge from the rails. Probably the first planned use of steel as an anode was in the 1930's. Scrap steel was commonly used, either in the form of old railroad rails or used pipe. Steel anodes can take many forms. Scrap materials include buried structures which have been abandoned in place; such as pipelines or well casings. Scrap pipe, tubing, or railroad

rails are commonly used. Any shape is capable of use; however, massive shapes are more conducive to practical use. A major problem in the use of steel as an anode is maintaining electrical connections. Multiple connections are typically used. Methods of protecting the connections and maintaining electrical continuity includes coating the structure in the vicinity of connection and continuous coating strips along the length of the anode. The consumption rate of steel is approximately 20 pounds per ampere year. Complete consumption of anode material is not typically achieved because of non-uniform corrosion and the difficulty of maintaining electrical connection. There is no established maximum recommended current density. Steel can be used in horizontal, vertical, or deep groundbeds, with or without carbonaceous backfill. With proper application, steel will perform well as an anode material. The major disadvantages of steel as an anode material are:

Anodic corrosion product films may build up on anode surface, increasing the resistance to earth. This effect may be partially overcome by installation in carbonaceous backfills. Preferential corrosion may occur in the area of the connection. Maintaining electrical connections. Large mass requirements.

Although most people would consider the use of steel as an anode as outmoded; there are operators who currently use steel in groundbeds with successful results. Graphite
Graphite anodes have been used for impressed current systems since the 1930's. Although the development is not attributed to a specific application, it probably resulted from the early recognition of carbon as a possible anode material. Graphite anodes are made from ground petroleum coke mixed with a coal tar pitch binder. The mixture is heated and extruded into cylinders. After extrusion, the cylinders are cooled in special vats, placed in an oven, packed in a mixture of sand and petroleum coke, and heated to approximately 900 degrees Celsius to fully carbonize the pitch binder. The sand-petroleum coke packing material aids heat transfer and supports the anode during its plastic stage. After cooling in a reducing atmosphere, the anodes are stacked in an Atchison or graphite furnace between two electrodes, covered with petroleum coke and an insulating sand layer, and single phase 60 Hz AC is passed through the pile. This process raises the temperature of the anodes to approximately 2600 degrees Celsius and completes the graphitization process. The produced graphite material used for anodes typically has the following properties: Electrical Resistivity Maximum resistivity 10 micro ohm-meters Mechanical Strength Compression - 3000 pounds per square inch Flexural - 2600 pounds per square inch. Density 99.26 pounds/ft.3

Thermal Conductivity Porosity Coefficient of thermal expansion

88 BUT/hr. ft. F. Less than 5% 0.72 x 10-6/F

Most anode shapes are cylindrical rods. The common sizes used are a 3" diameter x 60" length and a 4" diameter x 80" length. Square cross section graphite anodes have also been used. Extremely large shapes up to 24" x 72" have been used for offshore application. Treatment The produced graphite anode has a porosity of less than 5%. The anode life is improved significantly by filling the pores with an insulating material. This impregnation reduces the tendency for electrochemical activity to occur in the pores of the anode itself. It also acts as a barrier against moisture intrusion which can cause deterioration of the anode and the anode connection. The most common materials used for graphite treatment are wax, linseed oil, or resin. Use of untreated graphite anodes for any application is not recommended. Paraffin wax has been successfully used for graphite anode treating for many years. The wax material is in a solid form at ambient temperature. Treating is accomplished by heating the wax to over 200F and submerging anodes in the melted wax. Although treatment time can vary with temperature, moisture content, etc., complete impregnation of 4" diameter rods can normally be accomplished in a 24 hour exposure. After cooling, the wax within the anode solidifies and remains stable under most environmental conditions. Because the wax is a solid at normal temperatures, there is no tendency for the material to leach out of the anode. Linseed oil has also been widely used as an anode impregnant. The normal treatment procedure involves submersion of anodes in heated linseed oil in an autoclave under pressure conditions. Typically, the anodes are placed in the treatment vessel and a vacuum is drawn to remove all air from the anode pores. Preheated double boiled linseed oil is introduced into the vessel until the anodes are completely covered. The vessel is then pressurized and temperature maintained until complete impregnation is achieved. This process normally takes 2 to 4 hours. Since the oil is liquid at normal temperatures; this treatment material will have a tendency to leach or ooze out of the anode over a period of time. This effect is visible through the oil film on the surface of the treated anode. For extremely severe service applications, graphite anodes can be treated with a phenolic resin material. Phenolic resin sets up very hard. Typical properties of the graphite anode are only slightly affected by the resin treating except for a 40% increase in flexural strength. Anodes are surfaced to remove any skin layers and placed in an autoclave. A vacuum is drawn to remove air from the pores in the graphite. While vacuum is maintained, resin is pumped into the autoclave. After all anodes are completely submerged with the liquid resin, pressure is applied to ensure filling the pores with resin. Excess resin is drained from the autoclave and anodes are heat treated to polymerize or cure the resin within the graphite pores. Finally the anode surface is again surfaced to remove surface resin that could electrically insulate the anode from its environment. Proper impregnation with resin requires specialized handling equipment. In addition, there are some toxicity problems with the resin components. As a result, resin impregnation is normally only performed by the graphite manufacturer. Fabrication Each graphite anode is normally provided with an individual cable of varying length. There have been numerous methods and procedures for connecting cable to graphite anodes. These range

from a simple tamped lead connection to threaded metallic connectors. One of the methods most commonly used is a lead ferrule which is sized to the hole drilled in the anode. The ferrule is soldered to the anode cable and inserted in the hole. The ferrule is then expanded by a pneumatic or hydraulic tool which imposes a longitudinal force of up to 1800 pounds on the ferrule. This method results in connections with pull-out strengths exceeding that of the cable. Graphite anodes can be end connected or center connected. End connections are made by drilling a 6" to 8" deep hole from one end. Holes can be easily drilled with hand tools. Center connections are accomplished by drilling a hole to the longitudinal center of the anode from one end. This procedure requires more sophisticated gun drill type tools to maintain the hole in the center of the anode. Following cable connection, the annular space around the cable must be filled with a high quality electrical sealant. Common sealants are asphaltic electrical potting compounds. Care must be exercised to insure the compound is at the proper pouring temperature and that there are no voids or air pockets within the cavity. Anode caps such as epoxy or heat shrinkable caps are commonly used for additional protection. Graphite anodes can be prepackaged in steel canisters with carbonaceous backfill. Common canister sizes are 8" x 72", 8" x 84", 8" x 96", 10" x 84", 10" x 96", 12" x 84", and 12" x 96". Design Parameters Published values of graphite consumption range from 0.25 pounds per ampere-year to 5 pounds per ampere-year. Where oxygen evolution is the primary anode reaction, anode treatment should decrease consumption rate by at least 20%. Where chlorine evolution is the primary reaction, treatment should decrease consumption rate by at least 50%. In free flowing seawater and in some other applications where chlorine is the primary gas evolved at the anode, the graphite consumption rate should be in the 0.5 pound per ampere year range. In neutral soil or fresh water service, consumption rates may increase to 2.0 pounds per ampere year. Consumption rates are significantly lowered by surrounding the anode with a carbonaceous backfill. The decrease in consumption can be in the order of 75%. A design consumption rate of graphite in a coke breeze backfill is 1 lb/Amp-Year. The recommended maximum current density is 0.50 amperes per square foot in a coke breeze backfill. Applications Graphite is one of the most commonly used impressed current anode material for underground applications. Underground applications include deep, shallow vertical, or horizontal ground beds with carbonaceous backfill. Operation of anodes at higher than recommended outputs can cause an extremely low pH environment at the anode surface; resulting in a breakdown of the coal tar pitch binder. When this occurs, large sections of graphite can "slough" off the anode. Premature failures of untreated anodes have been reported as a result of water penetration through the body of the anode to the metallic lead wire connection. Electrolytic current flow between the connector and the anode will cause corrosion of the connector; resulting in connection failure. Some early failures of graphite anodes occurred prior to anode installation as a result of thermal expansion of the anode connector and/or the connection sealing compound. These failures occurred under conditions that resulted in temperatures in excess of 140 F. The majority of anode fabricators now use methods and materials that eliminate this problem. The use of carbonaceous backfill materials is highly recommended with graphite anodes. Accelerated corrosion rates can occur when the oxygen evolution reaction predominates.

Carbonaceous backfills can act as an extended anode; minimizing the effects of increased consumption rates.

Cast Iron
Iron containing a high silicon percentage was developed in the early 1900's. The cast material was extremely hard and brittle. It was first seriously considered for impressed current anode application in the early 1950's. It was introduced as an anode material in 1954. A subsequent modification to the alloy in 1959 produced better anode performance characteristics. This alloy consisted of the addition of 4.5% chromium. This anode material has been widely used and accepted in the industry. High silicon chromium cast iron is a solid, non-porous material. This alloy consists of a matrix of silico-ferrite in which the majority of the carbon is in the form of graphite flakes at grain boundaries. Adding chromium results in eliminating graphite. The produced cast iron material used for anodes typically has the following mechanical properties: Electrical Maximum resistivity 72 Resistivity: micro ohm-cm Mechanical Compression - 100000 Strength: pounds per square inch Flexural - 15000 pounds per square inch. Coefficient of 0.72 x 10-6/F thermal expansion:

The standard metallurgical composition of cast iron anodes conforms to ASTM Standard A518-86 Grade 3 as follows: Silicon: 14.20-14.75% Chromium: 3.25-5.00% Carbon: 0.70-1.10% Manganese: 1.50% maximum Copper: 0.50% maximum Molybdenum: 0.20% maximum This alloy is cast by several methods including sand mold casting, chill-casting, and centrifugal casting. A variety of anode shapes and sizes are available. The most common anode shapes are cylindrical tubes and solid bars in lengths up to 84", diameters from 1" to 6", and weights up to 280 pounds. The standard length for the solid bar anodes is 60". The standard length for tubular shapes is 84". Fabrication Each cast iron anode is normally provided with an individual cable of varying length. Cast iron anodes are provided in both end-connected and center-connected configurations. The solid bar anodes are cast with a hole at one end to accommodate a connecting cable. Center-connections are used for cylindrical tube shapes. There have been numerous methods and procedures for

connecting cable to cast iron anodes. The most common connector for solid anodes is a poured and tamped lead connection in the cast hole. Center-connected anodes utilize a one or two piece lead assembly attached to the interior center of the anode. Following cable connection, the annular space around the cable is filled with a high quality electrical sealant. Common sealants are asphaltic electrical potting compounds. Care must be exercised to insure the compound is at the proper pouring temperature and that there are no voids or air pockets within the cavity. Anode caps such as epoxy or heat shrinkable caps are commonly used for additional protection. Cast iron anodes can be prepackaged in steel canisters with carbonaceous backfill. Common canister sizes are 8" x 72", 8" x 84", 8" x 96", 10" x 84", 10" x 96", 12" x 84", and 12" x 96". Design Parameters The reported consumption rate is between 0.2 and 1.2 pounds per ampere-year. The controlling factor appears to be the environment. Manufacturer recommendations for anodes surrounded by carbonaceous backfill is 0.7 pounds per amp-year. Current densities should be limited to approximately 1 ampere per square foot. Applications High silicon cast iron anodes are widely used in underground applications in both shallow and deep groundbeds. Although the performance is improved with coke breeze; its use is not critical. This material is also widely used in freshwater and saltwater environments. The performance of cast iron as an anode is dependent upon the formation of a thin layer of silicon dioxide on the surface of the anode. Oxidation of the alloy is necessary to form this protective film. Silicon-chromium cast iron is highly resistant to acid solutions. It does not perform particularly well in alkaline environments or in the presence of sulfate ions. There have been some reports of early failure when silicon iron anodes are exposed to environments in which both sulfate and chloride ions are present. Other cases are reported where these anodes increase significantly in resistance when exposed to drying conditions. It is thought that this condition interferes with the formation of the conductive silicon dioxide film.

Platinized Titanium / Niobium

The first published results on the use of platinized titanium as anode were in 1958. Further development of the anode material has resulted in the use of superior substrates other than titanium. Its use has gone through several phases; however, it is recognized for its superior anodic properties. Platinum is an excellent anode material due to its high conductivity and low consumption rate. However, because of its high cost, it is not economical to use platinum by itself. Platinum is made practical for use by cladding or electroplating a thin layer of platinum over a lower cost substrate. This also extends the effective anode surface area. The substrate must also have the ability to form an insulating oxide film under anodic conditions. The two substrate materials most commonly used are titanium and niobium. Titanium and niobium both form insulating oxide films when exposed to anodic conditions. Titanium is less expensive; however, it has a much lower breakdown potential than niobium. The titanium oxide is reported to break down at anodic potentials in the 10V range. The niobium film is resistant to breakdown up to 80V. Niobium is also a much better electrical conductor than titanium. Niobium

is normally used with a copper core. This reduces the cost and also provides a much better electrical conductivity. Platinum coated anodes are available as rod, wire, sheet, tube, strip, and mesh. Rod and wire sizes normally range from 0.031 inches to 1". Platinum thicknesses range from 25 micro-inches to 1000 micro-inches. Connection to platinum coated anodes depends upon the anode shape. Wire type anodes normally use a soldered connection. Rod anodes generally have a drilled, threaded connection to the substrate material. The mechanism of deterioration of a platinum based anode is consumption of the platinum coating. Rate of consumption is controlled by many factors, primarily environment and current density. The consumption rate of platinum in seawater is approximately 8 mg/A-yr. In fresh and brackish waters, consumption is 2 to 3 times greater at low current densities (10 A/sq. ft). At high current densities, consumption is much higher. The use of platinum is now primarily limited to water environments. Its predominant use is probably in fresh water tank applications; with secondary applications such as condenser water boxes, reinforced concrete, process equipment, docks, etc. Anode manufacturers indicate that platinum can be successfully used underground, both in surface beds and deep anode beds. However, most operators experience has been negative. There have been numerous reports of anode failures when installed underground. The primary failure mechanism is felt to be excessive consumption in small areas and loss of substrate oxide. This could be a result of non-uniform electrolyte resistivities and/or non-linear current distribution in the anode conductor core. Platinum has performed well in water applications. It is probably the most widely used impressed anode material in fresh water applications such as storage tanks and condensers.

Mixed Metal Oxide

Mixed metal oxide anodes have been used in groundbeds since the early 1980's. The anodes were originally developed in Europe in the 1960's for use in the chlor-alkali industry. This material consists of a high purity titanium substrate with an applied coating consisting of a mixture of oxides. The titanium serves as a support for the oxide coating. Titanium functions as a "valve metal" which form thin, self-healing, adherent oxide films which are acid resistant and resist the passage of anodic current. The oxide is formed on the titanium substrate by thermal decomposition of precious metal salts that have been applied onto the substrate. Four configurations of these anode materials have been used for underground applications. These are tubular, wire or rod, mesh or net, and strips. Common tubular anode sizes are 1.6 cm and 2.5 cm diameter tubes, 50 cm and 100 cm long. Wire/rod anodes range in diameter from 1.5 to 12 mm. Expanded mesh anodes made from thin gauge titanium strip have been used in confined spaces. This form of anode operates at much lower current density, typically less than 0.5 amps per square meter. Anode strips with widths less than 50 mm have been used in confined spaces. Several different connection designs have been utilized. The tubular anodes are attached to a conductor cable using a mechanical or welded center connection. Multiple anodes are often attached to a single cable creating anode strings. Wire/rod anodes and mesh/strip anodes have generally used crimped end connections that are sealed with tape, heat shrink, and epoxy materials. Both tubular anodes and wire/rod anodes are commonly packaged in steel canisters ranging in length from 3' to 10' and in diameter from 2" to 6". The anodes are surrounded by fine carbonaceous coke breeze backfills in these containers.

Anode properties include high electrical conductivity, low consumption rate, and a high surface area to catalyze oxidation reactions. Consumption rates of the anode oxide are on the order of 1 mg per amp year for a chlorine evolution environment such as seawater. For an oxygen evolution environment, consumption rates are on the order of 5 mg per amp year. Maximum recommended current densities for underground application with a coke breeze backfill material is 100 A/sq. m (9.3 A/sq.ft). This current density relates to a design life of 20 years. Current densities for muds and freshwater may be reduced by over half, depending upon temperature and life. Mixed metal oxide anodes are now commonly used in underground, and water environments. They are also the predominant anode material used for protection of tank bottoms when installed with non-conductive secondary containment liners. There have been some instances of bed drying which have resulted in increased groundbed resistance. There have also been failures with anodes on strings where soil resistivity varied within the groundbed. This may be more of a concern in deep anode bed applications. Variations in resistivity can result in widely varying currents among the anodes. This has lead to accelerated consumption of anodes that were operating at current densities exceeding manufacturer's recommendation. Generation of chlorine has led to attack of the standard cable insulation used for tubular anodes. In these cases, a dual extrusion cable material is utilized.

Conductive Polymer
This anode material has been available since the early 1980's. The anode material consists of a continuous semiconducting polymer material extruded on a copper wire. The active anode component is carbon contained in a polymer matrix. It is a flexible wire-like anode and is provided on continuous rolls. The material has an outer diameter of 1/2" with an inner core of #6 AWG stranded copper wire. The anode is also provided prepackaged in carbonaceous backfill. The package is a nylon sheath containing the anode and backfill, provided on continuous rolls. Connections of the inner copper core to a main cable are normally with mechanical crimped connectors. The ends of the anode and connections are normally sealed with manufacturerprovided heat shrink enclosures. The manufacturers recommended maximum current density for the conductive polymer anode is 16 milliamperes per lineal foot, when installed underground. When this material is used in long-line parallel applications, the attenuation of current in the conductor must be considered. Typically, a heavy gauge parallel copper cable is installed with the anode and multiple connections are made at regular spacings along the anode length. This material is used extensively for long line anode system installed parallel to pipelines in areas where coating has deteriorated or where sub-surface conditions do not permit efficient current distribution from conventional current sources. It is normally installed with a surrounding carbonaceous backfill. Conductive polymer anodes have also been installed in confined areas such as between tank bottoms and non-conductive secondary containment liners. Conductive polymer anodes can provide uniform low-current density output over their entire lengths. Reports have generally been very good. There are some reports of failures in areas where the wire-like anode was not installed in carbonaceous backfill and accelerated consumption of the carbon occurred. These cases have almost all been related to excessive current discharge in low resistivity wet areas such as creek or stream crossings.

Application Table
The selection of an impressed current anode should be based upon a thorough evaluation of the application. Items of consideration include environment, current requirements, life requirements, space, and economics. There is probably no anode material that is optimum or even capable of effectively meeting the requirements of every situation. The anode materials developed within the past 30 years certainly expand the arsenal of the corrosion engineer. However, for underground application; the use of materials such as graphite and high silicon cast iron still far exceed those of the newer materials.

IMPRESSED CURRENT ANODE APPLICATION CHART

Anode Steel Graphite HISI Cast Iron Platinum Mixed Metal Oxide Conductive Polymer X X Soil with Coke Soil without Coke Freshwater Saltwater X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Anode Comparison Table

Anode Environment Consumption Design Rate Current lb/amp-year Density
amps/SqFt

Size Weight Surface Max* pounds Area Design Sq Ft. Output

(soil) Amps

Steel Graphite Soil Freshwater Saltwater

20.0 1.0 2.0 0.5

None 0.5 NR 2.0 3" x 60" 4" x 80" 30 72 4.0 7.3 2.0 3.6

HISI Cast Iron

Soil Freshwater Saltwater

0.7 1.0 0.5

1.0 2.5 2.5 1.5" x 60" 2" x 60" 27 44 2.0 2.6 2.0 2.6

2" x 60" 3" x 60" 4.5" x 60" 2.2" x 84" 2.6" x 84" 3.8" x 84" 4.8" x 84" Platinum Soil Freshwater Saltwater Mixed Metal Oxide Soil Freshwater Saltwater NR 8 mg/A-yr 8 mg/A-yr 5 mg/A-yr 5 mg/A-yr 1 mg/A-yr NR 50 50 10 10 50 1.6 x 50 cm 1.6 x 100 cm 2.5 x 50 cm 2.5 x 100 cm Conductive Polymer Soil Freshwater Saltwater 16 ma per LF 3 ma per LF NR

60 110 220 50 64 95 122

2.7 4.0 5.5 4.2 4.9 7.0 8.8

2.7 4.0 5.5 4.2 4.9 7.0 8.8

NA NA NA NA

0.275 0.56 0.44 0.88

2.5 5.0 4.0 8.0

* based on coke breeze backfill

Coupons to Monitor Cathodic Protection -- A Review of Technical Papers

Performed for The M. C. Miller Co. in 1998 by Delano P. Wegener, Ph.D.
Copyright by M. C. Miller Co. Inc. June, 1998. Used here with permission.

Section I: Summary of All Papers Reviewed

There is significant agreement among the published papers related to the use of coupons to monitor cathodic protection systems. This in itself is not remarkable because there are relatively few papers and several of those are summaries of other papers.

IR Drop
"The polarity of IR drop when the current direction is toward the structure, as is the case with a cathodic protection current, is additive thereby making the measured potential numerically greater than the polarized potential. This makes it appear that the structure is better protected than it really is. Conversely, when the current direction is away from the structure, as might be the case with a stray current, the polarity of the IR drop subtracts from the polarized potential and makes the structure appear more poorly protected than it is. Accordingly, when the IR drop component is significant, as would be the case for large current or high soil resistivity, then substantial measurement error arises unless corrective action is taken."
[GUM]

Historical Perspective of the Use of Coupons

The earliest reference to the use of coupons to monitor cathodic protection systems appears to be a brief mention in the famous 1967 book by Peabody.
[PEA]

The often cited GERG study indicates that coupons have been used to monitor cathodic protection systems in Europe since 1960. Most of these coupons were installed since about 1975.
[GER]

As early as 1979 researchers at Tokyo Gas built on holiday simulation work by J. Vrable in 1967 to conclude that coupons permit accurate measurement of IR free pipe-to-soil potential and current density in the presence of stray current.
[KAS]

As early as 1986, R. Greenwood recommended to British Gas that buried coupons should be used for routine measurement of pipe-to-soil potentials on pipelines affected by stray currents. He also suggests that the use of coupons in this manner was common in 1986.
[GRE]

In North America, the largest application of coupons to monitor cathodic protection systems is the on-going test on the Trans Alaska Pipeline.
[STE2]

[MOG][STE]

The most extensive published study of the use of coupons to monitor cathodic protection systems is the on-going AGA sponsored study being conducted by CC Technologies.
[THO1][THO2][THO3]

In 1994 B. A. Martin reported on the use of coupons to monitor the impressed current cathodic protection system at river crossings on a pipeline (in Papua, New Guinea) exposed to both Telluric currents and changing resistivity of the surrounding electrolyte.
[MAR]

Incentive for Using Coupons

"The increased interest in buried coupons for cathodic protection monitoring purposes seems to have been stimulated by the 1992 revision of the criteria in NACE Standard RP 0169-92 which emphasized consideration of IR drop for valid compliance with the 850 mV potential criteria.
[GUM]

CP coupons are installed to:

assess adequacy of a cathodic protection

system, determine compliance with federal regulations, determine compliance with industry standards.

[THO3]

Theory to Justify the Use of Coupons

Moghissi et al have shown that with time larger coupons tended to polarize cathodically toward the potential of the smaller defects.
[MOG] [GUM]

Barlo and Fessler demonstrated that the 'instant OFF' potential measured on a coated pipe having numerous holidays of different surface areas approximate the true potential of the largest holiday and that the largest holiday has the least negative potential.
[GUM]

General Conclusions about the Use of Coupons

"Buried coupons provide the best method available for accurate measurement of pipe/soil potentials on pipelines affected by stray current."
[GRE]

"When it is impractical to correct for voltage drops in pipeline potential measurements by disconnecting all current sources, CP coupons may be used to insure that adequate cathodic protection has been achieved."
[MOG]

"CP coupons assess the adequacy of the cathodic protection system at the coupon monitoring station location and may need to be used in conjunction with other monitoring tools to insure pipeline integrity."
[STE]

"It is theorized that the polarized potential of the coupon simulates the polarization of a holiday of similar size on the pipe."
[THO4]

Advantages of Using Coupons

"IR free potentials may be obtained without interrupting multiple CP power sources."
[DID]

"IR free potentials may be obtained on buried structures with direct connected galvanic anodes."
[DID]

"Depolarization testing may be performed without de-energizing the CP system."

[DID]

Sound Engineering Practices for the Use of Coupons

"Size coupons to represent a large coating defect."
[MOG]

"Place the coupon in the same environment as the pipeline."

[MOG]

"Avoid preferential distribution of current to the CP coupon."

[MOG]

"Install a sufficient number of coupons to adequately monitor the cathodic protection system."
[MOG]

Use older or aged steel of a grade similar to the structure's steel.

[DID]

Coupons manufactured from new steel should remain disconnected from the structure and permitted to corrode freely for a period of one or two months.
[DID]

Install the coupon at the same depth as the structure and about .33 meters (1 foot) from the structure.
[DID]

The coupon material, mill scale, polished steel all determine the coupon's potential and could cause distortion in the readings.
[DID]

Coupons must be placed outside the gradient of any existing anodes.

[DID]

Unresolved Issues

Determining the coating conductance becomes very important when implementing a coupon program.
[DID]

"The major disadvantage of coupons is the possible discrepancy between the true structure potentials and the coupon potentials."
[DID]

"The polarized potential of the coupon will not necessarily duplicate the structure polarized potential at the same location. This is due to the coupon representing a holiday of similar size on the pipeline and not actually being located at the holiday location. The structure potential would be representative of the nearest or most influencing holiday, while the coupon potential would be at the coupon, therefore when comparing potentials taken at the same location, there should be some difference."
[DID2]

A small percentage of the sites being studied by CC Technologies exhibit discrepancies between coupon potentials and pipe potentials. It is conjectured that long-line currents are responsible. They suggest that due to long-line currents the polarized potential of the pipe is more positive than the off-potential measured. The coupon off-potential is unaffected by the long-line current.
[THO]

There is no standard with respect to coupon size, geometry, or orientation. There is no standard with respect to criteria or interpretation of data collected from the coupons.
[GER]