Converting and Translating Data

Converting analog to digital data, or vice versa, requires special machinery. These devices must be able to capture through sampling the continuous movement of naturally occurring phenomenon as well as reproduce an authentic representation of natural events from digital snapshots. The latter involves the conversion of digital data (1s and 0s) to analog data (like sound).

1. Analog Encoding Methods

Analog data is carried by an alternating current. If we were to graphically represent alternating current, it would appear as a wave, with voltage bouncing above and below the zero level. There are three factors to consider: frequency, amplitude, and phase.

Frequency is the rate at which the current alternates above and below the zero current level. When the current rises above zero, dips below zero and then returns to zero, we say the current has completed one "cycle". The name applied to the number of cycles per second is Hertz (Hz). Therefore, if there are 500 cycles per second for an analog signal, we say the frequency is 500 Hertz (500 Hz).

Amplitude would be viewed as the height (peak) and the depth (trough) of the graphic wave. As analog data travels over distance, the amplitude of the wave decreases. This characteristic is called "attenuation". As mentioned earlier, analog waves are less susceptible to attenuation problems, but occasionally they have to be amplified. The amplitude of analog waves is measured in watts, amps or volts. The measurementdecibel is often used to describe the power of a signal. A decibel (dB) allows us to understand the comparison of two different power levels of a signal. For instance, let's say we measured the amplitude of an analog signal about to be sent across a LAN at 600 milliwatts. Now we measure the signal after it has traveled through the network and we find that it has a measurement of only 300 milliwatts. If our measuring device could report in dB, we would find that the change in the signal from source to destination was about -3 dB. The decibel is a measurement of relative change, not actual power. Therefore, the -3 dB change would have been the same even if the original power was 200 watts and the second measurement yielded 100 watts.

Finally, phase describes the difference in the start of the cycle of one signal to the start of the cycle of another. One signal acts as a reference signal, the other signal is the phased signal. A phased signal is created by slightly delaying it in order to cause its peaks and troughs to be out of sync with the reference signal. The level of nonsynchronization is measured in degrees. If a signal is 180 out of phase, it means that as the reference signal reaches zero voltage following a peak, the phased signal begins. Thus as the reference signal is peaking, the phased signal is (for lack of a better term) troughing. The figure below illustrates this more clearly.

Figure 5-1: Phasing is the result of creating a signal out of sync with a reference signal.

The importance in looking at frequency, amplitude and phase, lies in the fact that it is these components that can be varied in order to allow an analog signal to carry data. Altering the frequency, amplitude or phase of a signal is called modulation. You see, if we modulate a signal, we make it appear to be different from normal. If we know what the normal signal should be like, then we can compare the normal one with the modulated one. The difference between the two represents the data being carried. We must grasp this concept before we can understand signal conversion. Let's take this one step further by seeing some examples of how data is encoded into analog signals.

AM radio is produced by taking a basic signal (radio wave) and modulating its amplitude according to another signal (i.e. voice and music). AM stands for Amplitude Modulation. We may use the same technology for carrying computer data as well. For digital data, it's called Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK). Here are a couple of examples:

Figure 5.2: Amplitude Modulation can be used to encode data in analog signals.

FM radio is produced by taking a basic signal (radio wave) and modulating its frequency according to another signal (i.e. music and voice). In this case, FM is an acronym for Frequency Modulation. In the digital data realm, the same technology can be applied using Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK). Figure 5.3 illustrates a couple of examples.

An analog signal may also carry data by having its phase modulated. This technology is used in producing multiple sound channels for motion pictures. Motion picture film has only limited space for carrying sound data. It may not have enough available space to carry the several channels required to create a realistic sound for the audience. By placing several different modulated signals out of phase with one another together, we can in effect carry several different channels of data on one analog signal (carrier). In transmitting digital data, modulating the signal phase is called Phase Shift Keying (PSK). Figure 5.4 provides some phasing examples.

Figure 5.3: Frequency Modulation may be used to encode data into an analog signal as well.

Figure 5.4: Phase Modulation can be used to encode data in an analog signal. The amplitude is varied in some technologies.

As you can see the difference is obvious between the different technologies but the result is the same. Data, whether audio, video or digital, can be encoded and transmitted via analog signals, However, some of these methods offer distinctive advantages over the others.

In analyzing methods for carrying digital data, Amplitude-Shift Keying is fairly easy to accomplish. On the other hand, any kind of amplitude modulated signal is very susceptible to outside interference. This is evident if you have ever tried listening to an AM station during an electrical storm. Each lightning occurrence fires random radio waves through the air resulting in signal interference. The same thing happens to ASK devices. Therefore, ASK is not really suitable for transmission over long distances.

Just as FM radio is not generally affected by weather, neither are FSK transmissions. In spite of this, Frequency-Shift Modulation is seldom used for transmission over highspeed lines as the technology does not allow as many bits per second throughput as PSK does.

Phase-Shift Keying technology is what is utilized by most high speed modern modems. One standard for using PSK is called the Bell 212A specification. It allows four different phases (in degrees) to encode data. The result is a potential for 600 phase shifts per second. Each phase shift represents a certain combination of 2 bits (i.e. 00 01 10 or 11). It then logically follows that since two bits are transmitted per phase shift and there are 600 phase shifts per second, the Bell 212A supports 1200 bits per second throughput.

PSK is very resistant to external interference as it enjoys most of the same characteristics that FM or FSK devices do. The signals encoded using PSK may be used for synchronization purposes as well for the sender and receiver.