Gender and Education in China: Policy Recommendations

Dr. Rong Wang China Institute for Educational Finance Research Peking University, China February 27, 2012
The views expressed in this paper are the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.

Outline
I. A Summary of Empirical Findings about Gender and Education in China II. A Brief Analysis of Policies: Past and Present III. Policy Recommendations for the Future

I. Gender and education in China: Findings

What are the achievements, as found out by scholars (Loyalka,2012):

Education access:
enrolment gaps closed Increased proportions of girls at higher level/better schools

Education tracking:
girls more in academic tracks (junior secondary education)

Education success:
Girls perform better than boys (up to the completion of compulsory education) according to surveys

II. A Brief Analysis of Policies: Past and Present

A state-centered model for analyzing the achievements

The state since 1995 has enacted and implemented three Outlines for the Development of Chinese Women, and included women's development in the overall plans of economic and social development in China. The Outlines: roadmap to lead and coordinate governments at various levels and government agencies in different sectors for the cause of women development. Outline for the Development of Chinese Women (1995-2000) Outline for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) Outline for the Development of Chinese Women (2011-2020) Structure of the Outline:
fields objectives strategies

1995 Outline Women and Education: 4 Objectives 1. Gradually increase the proportions of women attending schools at every level, systematically improve the quality of all the working age women, and eagerly cultivate female professionals and technical of various kinds. 2. Basically achieve the goal of universalizing compulsory education in the whole country, reduce drop-out rates and non- attendance rates of school-age girls to below 2%. 3. Every year reduce female adult illiterates by 3 million. By the end of the century basically eliminate adult illiteracy. 4. Forcefully develop vocational education, employee training and practical skills training, improve the employment competence of women.

1995 Outline Women and Education: Strategies

For example:
Objective
Basically achieve the goal of universalizing compulsory education in the whole country, reduce drop-out rates and non- attendance rates of school-age girls to below 2%.

Strategy
Governments at every level must implement Compulsory Education Law.provide policy and financial support for the purposes.Governments at every level must make aggressive efforts to help girls that are prevented from schooling due to family financial difficulties.

2001 Outline: 5 Objectives

1. Protect the rights of nine-year compulsory education of girls, net enrollment rate of primary education for girls reaches 99%, and five year consolidation rate reaches 95%, basically eliminate non-attendance of girls. Gross enrolment rate of junior secondary education reaches 95%. 2. Gross enrollment rate of senior secondary education of girls reaches 75%, and that of higher education reaches 15%. 3. Literacy rate of adult women increases. 4. Improve life-long education of women. 5. Increase the average schooling years of women.

 For example:
Objective:
Protect the rights of nine-year compulsory education of girls, net enrollment rate of primary education for girls reaches 99%, and five year consolidation rate reaches 95%, basically eliminate non-attendance of girls. Gross enrolment rate of junior secondary education reaches 95%.

Strategy:
To further implement Compulsory Education Law and other related legislations and mandates, with girls in western poverty-stricken areas and minority areas, disabled girls, and girls of migrating families as targeting priorities.

2011 Outline Women and Education: 10 Objectives

1. Fully implement the principle of gender equality in education. 2. Ensure girls equal access to pre-school education. Increase girls gross enrollment rate of three-year preschool education to 70%. 3. Ensure equal access to compulsory education. Increase girls retention rate of nine-year compulsory education to 95%. Eliminate drop-out phenomena. 4. Ensure equal access to senior secondary education, increase girls gross enrollment rate to 90%. 5. Ensure equal access to higher education, increase girls enrollment rate to 40%. 6. Increase the popularization of programs of Women's Studies at higher education institutions. 7. Increase the proportion of female students at vocational schools and training programs. 8. For women in the prime working-age population, increase the average years of education to 11.2 years. 9. Reduce the female illiteracy rate to below 2%. 10.Implement principles and concepts of gender equality in curriculum standards and teaching through puts for schools at all the levels.

 For example:
Objective:
Ensure girls equal access to pre-school education. Increase girls gross enrollment rate of three-year preschool education to 70%.

Strategy:
Ensure equal access to pre-school education of girls. Provide subsidies to girls from poor families and the disabled to accept universal-benefit pre-school education. Increase the universalization of pre-school education in rural areas.

In summary
1. Clear objectives, usually defined in quantity terms.
With emphasis on education access objectives defined by enrollment rates, retention rates, etc.

2. Consistent with education sector development outlines.

Outline of Chinas National Plan for Medium and Longterm Education Reform and Development (2010-2020)
For those rates objectives: gender neutral.

3. Gradualist approach, with evolving priorities.

Universalize 9-year compulsory education UCE and Expand access to senior secondary education and higher education Expand access to pre-school education

 4. Gender-related problems perceived as obstacles for achieving the overall objectives of the sector, e.g., universalizing compulsory education, and tackled in the same spirit.
5. Usually with clear targeting strategies, and financial intervention measures from the government emphasized, but no explicit preferential treatment for girls.

III. Policy Recommendations for the Future

Questions Remain
1. To what extent the gender problem-as-part-of-the-whole strategy works? 2. What about Chinas school-and-work (society) correspondence mechanism in terms of gender equality?
Labor market context:
Rate of returns to education for females higher, for women with less schooling face more discrimination (Liu, 2011). Increasing labor market discrimination against women in China (Li and Song, 2011).

Discrimination-risk compensation impact hypothesis?

It is possible that educational investment is considered to be a discrimination-risk compensation strategy by parents and girls.

3. Is it really the consequence of the gender-related state policies?

According to some scholars, one-child policy may inadvertently have contributed to greater educational gender equality (Ming-Hsuan Lee, 2011).
It is found that children in one-child households enjoyed significantly improved opportunities for education compared to children inside multiple-child households. The improvement for girls was larger than that of boys. In addition, no difference is found in years of schooling between only-child boys and onlychild girls, whereas the gap between boys and girls inside multiple-child households remained significant.

 More accurate targeting of attention and intervention:

girls from low-income families; girls from minority areas; girls from rural multi-sibling households; girls from migrating families and girls left-behind by parents; girls with disabilities.

Improve education inspection and other quality assurance mechanisms: from gender neutral to gender sensitive. Create specific programs to help girls in school-to-work transition, establish anti-discrimination social responsibility monitoring network for the business community. Create more lifelong learning opportunities for adult women with low schooling achievements.

Thank you!