Optimum topological design of simply supported composite

stiened panels via genetic algorithms

Luigi Iuspa
a
, Eugenio Ruocco
b,
*
a
Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department, Second University of Naples, Via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa (CE), Italy
b
Civil Engineering Department, Second University of Naples, Via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa (CE), Italy
Received 3 September 2007; accepted 14 February 2008
Available online 14 April 2008
Abstract
In the present paper the topological optimal design of isotropic/orthotropic thin structures performed via genetic algorithms is shown.
Examples involving structural weight minimization under compressive load or buckling load maximization are presented.
A modied nite strip method was developed and used to analyze parametric structures arranged in form of plates or stiened panels
with almost arbitrary cross-section shapes. Specic design variables were dened to assure a robust control over geometrical and topo-
logical features. In particular, a semi-analytical formulation for the determination of eigenvalues and eigenvectors was adopted in order
to reduce computational eorts requested by the optimization task.
A mesh-independent solver, involving a reduced number of degrees of freedom, was implemented and interfaced with a genetic opti-
mizer for the purpose. The optimization procedure was based on a specic bit-masking oriented genetic algorithm, able to handle in
parallel dierent genetic operators expressly conceived to process with proper metrics discrete and continuous design variables. As pre-
liminary example, the buckling load maximization of a metallic plate with an arbitrary grid-shaped cross-section is described rst. Then a
topological optimization concerning the weight minimization of a composite stiened panel subject to constraint about buckling load is
illustrated and discussed in detail about parametric model denition and genetic procedure.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Composite panels; Buckling load; Semi-analytical methods; Optimization; Genetic algorithms; Bit-masking method
1. Introduction
The use of high-performance composite materials in sev-
eral branches of aerospace and mechanical engineering has
brought about the development of several numerical proce-
dures for the optimal design of composite stiened panels.
The main advantage of employing stiened panels in aero-
space structures lies in achieving an eective, lightweight
design; while stieners add negligible weight to the overall
structure, their inuence on strength and stability is very
consistent. However, composite panels still remain thin/
slender structures subject to buckling phenomena under a
compressive load; consequently, optimisation procedures
concerning buckling load maximisation or weight minimi-
sation with buckling load constraints, have received con-
siderable attention in the last years, as demonstrated by a
number of publications focused on this topics [15].
Structural optimisation procedures based on genetic
algorithms (GAs) are computationally expensive, and a
major task is to reduce their computational cost: in Nagen-
dra et al. [6] the eects of various modications applied to a
basic genetic algorithm are analysed, in order to improve
both reliability and computational eciency for the mini-
mum weight design of stiened panels subject to compres-
sive load. Kogiso et al. [7,8] considered information
retained from past design to construct a meta-function
approximation for the buckling load. Although eective
0045-7949/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruc.2008.02.001
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 081 5010266; fax: +39 081 5037370.
E-mail address: eugenio.ruocco@unina2.it (E. Ruocco).
www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
about computational eort reduction, this approach high-
lighted, on the other hand, a reduced capability to nd iso-
lated singular optima.
Dimou and Koumousis [9] introduced competition
among the populations of a number of GAs having dier-
ent sets of parameters. The co-evolution of embedded sub-
populations (metapopulation) improves the attitude of the
algorithm to nd global optima with respect to a standard
GAs. The authors demonstrated the eciency of the pro-
posed method with examples related to the optimal design
of simple truss structures. In [10] a non-linear Finite Ele-
ment Method (FEM) code is used to analyze the buckling
and post-buckling behaviour of composite structures for
optimisation purposes. To counteract the resulting large
amount of computing time, a parallel processing technique
and a reduced number of design variables was adopted. In
[11] the layout of ber-reinforced laminates is decomposed
into reduced sub-structures with constrained local bound-
ary conditions. However, the resulting stacking sequence
highlights some manufacturing diculties due to local
optima convergence, and the need for a more robust, glob-
ally blended solution.
In the present paper the structural optimization per-
formed via genetic algorithms of composite stiened pan-
els/plates involving buckling load is presented. Both
topological and geometrical stiness-sensitive features as
cross-section type, bay length, thickness, ply composition
and orientation are considered as design variables.
According to the previously described guidelines, mainly
focused on procedure eciency, a special kind of genetic
algorithm, able to handle properly continuous and discrete
design set with separate and dedicated operators, was used
here [12].
Besides genetic algorithm implementation and set-up,
another critical aspect of the optimisation procedure ana-
lysed here is the denition of an ecient calculus engine
for the prediction of the buckling load and related modal
displacements. Analytical methods become very dicult
to apply successfully when stieners are introduced in the
design; consequently a number of numerical procedures
have been proposed to achieve a satisfactory solution of
the problem. A numerical approach FEM based is a very
common technique that allows a wide arbitrariness about
geometry and boundary conditions. However, accurate,
non-linear FEM-based buckling analysis exhibits some
intrinsic numerical instability and almost unacceptable
computational costs. When the geometry of structure
becomes regular (i.e. open ruled surface), more ecient
techniques can be successfully adopted; the nite strip
method, based on the discretization of the structure along
the transverse direction only, is systematically employed
in buckling analysis with satisfactory results [1316].
In this context a more ecient, semi-analytical formula-
tion, described in a detailed form in [17,18], was used. This
procedure has proved to predict global and local buckling
load of composite stiened plates in good agreement with
theoretical solutions. The semi-analytical nature of the pro-
posed procedure returns exact critical load and modal dis-
placements of structures with complex geometry using a
very coarse mesh. On the other hand, as the model is based
on analytical solutions with related assumptions, its appli-
cability is limited to specic boundary conditions (simply
supported plates) and material lay-up (symmetric ply orien-
tation). Fortunately these aspects represent a minor limita-
tion because such a type of boundary conditions and lay-up
sequences are typical of a wide variety of structural schemes
involved in practical problems. The proposed method is
very attractive because of its computational eciency, and
this aspect is extremely remarkable for numerical-intensive
tasks as the present topological structural optimization.
In the next section the proposed method, developed for
the analysis of plates and panels, is described rst. Guide-
lines and theoretical bases are highlighted and the govern-
ing dierential equations are derived. Section 3 provides
some background hints on GAs, where Section 4 outlines
the specic approach designed by bit-masking oriented
genetic algorithm (BMOGA).
In Section 5 two application examples are illustrated in
order to demonstrate applicability and eciency of the
proposed methodologies. First example is a preliminary
test-case related to the optimization of an isotropic plate
with a grid-shaped cross-section. Next application concerns
the topological optimisation of a stiened composite panel.
Conclusions are nally reported in the last section.
2. Bifurcation analysis
Fiber-reinforced composites are manufactured in the
form of thin sheets, called laminae, or layers (see Fig. 1).
In most application, the laminate thickness is much smaller
than planar dimensions, so that two-dimensional theories
can be applied.
Under the classical thin plate hypothesis (Kirchho
Loves theory and von Ka`rman straindisplacement
relationship), the following in-plane and out-of-plane
equilibrium equations can be obtained:
N
x;x
N
xy;y
0
N
yx;x
N
y;y
0
M
x;xx
2M
xy;xy
M
y;yy
N
x
w;
x
N
xy
w;
xy
N
y
w;
y
1
For sake of clarity, the denition of internal forces intro-
duced in (1) are shown in Fig. 2.
Constitutive relations for lamentary unidirectional
laminae may be established assuming homogeneous ortho-
tropic materials and plane stress condition [19]. The result-
ing constitutive matrix is generally fully populated, with
elastic constants depending on four main terms. Conse-
quently, it can be written in the following form:
N
M
_ _

A B
B
T
D
_ _
e
v
_ _
2
where the N M
T
and e v
T
vectors represent Kirch-
hos plate forces and related dual kinematical quantities,
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1719
respectively. The terms A, B and C present in the constitu-
tive matrix are expressed by the following expressions:
A T
k
s
k
; B
T
k
s
2
k
2
; D
T
k
s
3
k
3
3
with s thickness of the kth lamina and
T
k

Ex
1m
xy
m
yx

mxy Ey
1m
xy
m
yx

0
myxEx
1mxy myx
Ey
1mxy myx
0
0 0 l
_

_
_

_
k

cos
2
h sin
2
h 2 cos h sin h
sin
2
h cos
2
h 2 cos h sin h
cos h sin h cos h sin h cos
2
h sin
2
h
_

_
_

_
k
where h represents the deviation angle between the current
lamina principal axis and laminate reference axis.
When ply orientations are restricted to a discrete set of
angles and the symmetry with respect to the z axis is
imposed, constitutive equations (2) are uncoupled about:
(i) bending, twisting and stretching (i.e. the B
ij
terms are
equal to zero); (ii) normal stress and shear in the middle
surface (i.e. A
13
= A
23
= 0; D
13
and D
23
negligible). These
conditions yield to the following three partial dierential
equations expressed in terms of generalised displacements,
referred to the local coordinate system represented in
Fig. 3:
A
11
u;
xx
A
12
v;
xy
A
33
u;
yy
v;
xy
0
A
12
u;
xy
A
22
v;
yy
A
33
u;
xy
v;
xx
0
D
11
w;
xxxx
2D
12
2D
33
w;
xxyy
D
22
w;
yyyy
N
x
w;
xx
N
y
w;
yy
2N
xy
w;
xy
0
5
Fig. 1. Typical lay-up for a ber-reinforced plate.
Ny
yx N
x N
Nxy
Nx
xy N
y N
Nyx
x M
Mxy
M
x
xy M
yx M
y M
My
Myx
x
y
z
Fig. 2. Generalised forces in equilibrium equations.
1720 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
Eq. (5) do not allow a closed-form solution; however, using
a standard separation-of-variable technique, the system
can be reduced to a set of one-dimensional ordinary dier-
ential equations, suitable for analytical solution. Assuming
the following displacement eld:
ux; y UY sinX
vx; y V Y cosX X
xp
k
; Y
yp
k
wx; y W Y cosX
6
with k half-wavelength, N
y
= N
xy
= 0 and N
x
= N
L
(i.e.
uniaxial load), Eq. (5) can be rewritten in the following
form:
sinXA
33
U
00
A
11
N
L
U A
12
A
33
V
0
0
cos XA
22
V
00
A
33
N
L
V A
12
A
33
U 0
cos X D
22
W
0000
4D
12
2D
33
W
00
D
11

N
L
k
2
p
2
_ _
W
_ _
0
7
where for sake of brevity, primes denotes dierentiation
with respect to Y.
Relations (7) represent ordinary dierential equations in
the Y variable having the general solution:
UY k
1
cosh hY /k
2
cosh /Y
k
3
sinh hY /k
4
sinh /Y
V Y hk
1
sinh hY k
2
sinh /Y
hk
3
cosh hY k
4
cosh /Y
W Y k
5
sinh aY k
6
cosh aY k
7
sin bY k
8
cos bY
8
depending on the following parameters:
h 2A
33
A
21
A
11
2N
L
2A
33
A
12
A
22

1
2
/ A
12
A
11
2N
L
A
12
A
22

1
2
a k
1
k
2
1
k
2

1
2
_ _1
2
b k
2
1
k
2

1
2
k
1
_ _1
2
k
1
D
33
D
1
22
k
2
D
1
22
D
11
N
L
k
2
p
2

9
Coecients k
1
, . . . , k
8
are xed imposing boundary
conditions.
Using relations (8) as shape functions of the displace-
ment eld, the local stiness matrix of ber-reinforced
structures formed by plates rigidly connected at their edges,
can be dened in terms of four unknown displacement
magnitudes for each side j:
d
k
j
W W V U
k
j
j 1; 2 k 1; n plate 10
with W computed deriving the out-of-plane displacement
W reported in (8) respect to the Y variable (see Fig. 4).
Well-consolidated, FEM-derived routines can be then
used to assemble the overall stiness matrix. Finally, the
solution of the associated eigenproblem provides both the
smallest critical load and related normalized displacements.
Respect to the more usual nite strip method, this pro-
posed procedure adopts an exact solution as shape function
in Y direction rather than a polynomial expression, while
the same trigonometric approximation in X direction is
used. Simply supported boundary conditions along the
X-side result as consequence of the required approximation
in X direction.
The model is mesh-independent and a solution involving
a reduced number of degrees of freedom can be easily
dened. For stiened plates, the dimension of the system
is about four times only the number of stieners. In
Fig. 5, a comparison between standard nite strip method
FEM and the proposed semi-analytical method is shown in
terms of equivalent discretization for a typical stiened
plate.
x,u
x,u
x,u
x,u
z,w
z,w
z,w
z,w
y,v
y,v y,v
y,v
Fig. 3. Generalised displacements and local coordinate system.
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1721
Thin-wall structures with very complex and almost arbi-
trary cross-section shapes can be easily handled by this
method (see Fig. 6). On the other hand, the computational
eciency oered by this numerical approach can be advan-
tageously capitalized by an optimization procedure based
on genetic algorithms.
U
V
W

A
B
C
D
Fig. 5. (AD) Finite strip approach for a typical stiened plate; degree of freedoms (A), part decomposition (B) and discretization (C); equivalent F.E.M.
mesh for comparison (D).
W
V 0
x
y
z
U
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
W
V
U1
1
1
2
2
2
y x
0
z
2
2
W2
1
V
1
2
U
1
2
2
1
U
2
2
2
W
2
V2
2
Fig. 4. Unknown local displacement magnitudes.
1722 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
3. Basic concepts in genetic algorithms
In the 1950s and 1960s several computer scientists inde-
pendently studied evolutionary systems with the idea that
simulated evolution of biologic entities could be used as
an optimization tool for engineering problems. In Gold-
bergs short history of evolutionary computation ([20],
chapter 4) the names of Box [21] and Friedman [22] are
associated with works containing the rudiments of evolu-
tion in various forms. All had some kind of selection of
the ttest, some had population-based schemes for selec-
tion and variation, and some others, like many GAs, had
binary strings as abstractions of biological chromosomes.
GAs, as we know them now, were early described in the
1960s and fully developed by Holland [23], where for the
rst time GAs were presented as abstraction of biological
evolution with main theoretical frameworks. In genetic
algorithms, a particular design (A) is represented by a set
of characteristics a
i
called phenotype and dened as real
or integer numbers (Fig. 7).
For each phenotype it is possible to obtain the genotype
encoding each a
i
into a particular alphabet (usually short as
a binary/Gray code). The transformation of the phenotype
structure into a string of bits leads to the so-called chromo-
somes that represent, like in natural systems, the total
genetic prescription for the construction and operation of
some organism.
A genetic algorithm operates on populations of strings
and progressively modies their genotypes to get the better
performance of their phenotype measured through a tness
function. The adaptation process is based on the mecha-
nism of natural selection and natural genetics. In genetic
based evolution simulations, phenotypes express the
parameter sets of alternative solutions to the problem. This
process is iterated over many time steps, each of them
called a generation. After several generations, the result is
a number of high-performance chromosomes in the
population.
4. Genetic algorithms implementation
Since the rst appearance in the late 60s, genetic algo-
rithms have been subject to many implementations and
variants due to their own nature of evolutionary simulation
Fig. 6. Examples of thin-walled structures with arbitrary cross-section shape.
a
4n+m+1 p
a
4n+1
a a
4n+m
a ...... a
1 n
a
n+1
a
2n
a
2n+1
a
4n
a
3n+1
.
.
.
a
3n
......
Fig. 7. Phenotype example in multi-layered plate design.
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1723
methods. Although simplied, a well-established classica-
tion subdivides binary coded genetic algorithms (bGAs) in
two main branches: explicit or implicit binary formulation.
The rst method is the simplest way to translate genetic
representation of an articial DNA into a computer data
structure using boolean arrays for the purpose. The second
approach codies genetic information directly at a
chromosomal level by means of integer arrays. The main
advantage of an implicit representation is an increased
computational eciency, as no binary-to-decimal conver-
sion and vice versa is required. On the other hand, some
algebraic manipulations involving integers must be applied
in order to perform crossover and mutation operators.
In the present work a special, bit-masking oriented ver-
sion of an implicit binary coded GA BMOGA was used.
This novel approach keeps the computational eciency
of an integer data structure adding some powerful features.
Without going into details, classical procedural genetic
operators are replaced by a unique synthetic operator
engine able to emulate all the traditional crossover and
mutation schemes, plus many others suggested by specic
requests, simply varying the arguments of a special boolean
function. This way complex procedural schemes as multi-
level crossovers operating in parallel on partitions of chro-
mosomal strings can be easily obtained by the nal user
simply dening an appropriate input le. An in-depth
description and further details about BMOGA implemen-
tation can be found in Ref. [24]. In this context some basic
features about the handling of sub-strings connected to
integer/real design variables were adopted, in order to
increase the convergence speed of optimization tasks based
on limited calculus resources (small populations and/or
reduced generations).
5. Application examples
5.1. Topological optimization of a grid structure
As rst example, the analysis of a metallic plate with a
grid-shaped cross-section is shown. The analyzed structure
is constrained to stay inside a bounding box of assigned
depth, width and height dimensions (respectively: 200,
180 and 20 mm). The plate is subject to the previously
dened natural boundary conditions applied on borders
and free edges and optimized to maximize the buckling
load.
In Fig. 8 a pictorial scheme of the plate is shown. The
shape of the plate cross-section is topologically-free,
but expressly conditioned to form anyway an orthogonal
grid. The section comes with a variable number of cells
arranged in rows and columns. Topological design param-
eters n and m dene the number of cells in x and y direc-
tions, while geometrical dimensions of each row/column
are dened by further independent parameters.
Let Dx and Dy be, respectively, the overall dimensions
in x and y directions of the plate cross-section, the follow-
ing conditions must be meet:

n
i1
l
x;i
Dx;

m
j1
l
y;j
Dy 1 6 n 6 n
max
; 1 6 m 6 m
max
;
11
where l
x,i
and l
y,j
denote ith and jth parametric cell-length
along x and y directions and n
max
, m
max
are the maximum
number of allowed rows and columns in the section.
Analyzing relations (11) a clear diculty appears when
one tries to introduce an independent set of design vari-
ables that directly model cells dimensions because: (i) the
number of rows and columns does not remain constant
in the parametric model; (ii) rows and columns represent
an ordered set and consequently an implicit hierarchy
exists about grid coordinates in both directions.
In order to satisfy relations (11) developing at the same
time a robust formulations for geometrical design vari-
ables, two new sets Y
x
and Y
y
of independent, normalized
parameters have been introduced. Aim of these design vec-
tors is to decouple geometrical features by topology. A
functional relation based on natural cubic splines is used
for this scope.
Let (x
k
, y
k
), k = 0, 1, . . . , p be a set of p + 1 points
belonging to an orthogonal domain [x
0
, x
p
] [0, 1] and
equally spaced in x. The following relations will result:
X
Y
Z
1 2 n
1
m
2

Dx
Dy
tk
i
Fig. 8. Plate cross-section layout.
1724 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
x
k
x
0
kh; y
k
2 0; 1; h x
p
x
0
=p;
k 0; 1; . . . ; p 12
a natural cubic spline s(x) interpolating these points can be
dened by means of the following relations:
sx a
k
x x
k1

3
b
k
x x
k1

2
c
k
x x
k1
d
k
;
x
k1
6 x 6 x
k
s
0
x 3a
k
x x
k1

2
2b
k
x x
k1
c
k
s
00
x 6a
k
x x
k1
2b
k
13
where a
k
, b
k
, c
k
, d
k
k = 1, p are 4p unknown coecients.
Imposing on s(x) a C
2
class membership, a number of
4p 2 conditions can be given:
sx
k1
d
k
y
k1
k 1; p
sx
k
a
k
h
3
b
k
h
2
c
k
h d
k
y
k
k 1; p
s
0
x
k
3a
k
h
2
2b
k
h c
k
c
k1
k 1; p 1
s
00
x
k
6a
k
h 2b
k
2b
k1
k 1; p 1
_

_
14
Adding two more conditions (i.e. zero slope at external
points), a complete set of 4p equations is dened:
s
00
x
0
2b
1
0
s
00
x
p
6a
p
h 2b
p
0
_
15
By solving Eqs. (14) and (15) a generic cubic spline-based
relation is now available in the form:
y

sX; Y; x

where
X 0; 1=p; 2=p; . . . ; p 1=p; 1
Y y
0
; y
1
; y
2
; . . . ; y
p

;
x
0
6x

6x
p
16
Using function (16) a link can be established between p + 1
design parameters represented by the y
p
coordinates of the
spline control points and the normalized values returned by
evaluation of (16) at some reference points. In order to ap-
ply this approach to the denition of the grid geometrical
properties, the following steps are executed: (1) a normal-
ized, equally spaced grid in both x and y directions is rst
considered; (2) two separate splines, applied on x and y
coordinate are dened by means of design vectors Y
x
and
Y
y
; (3) for each coordinate values x
i
(i = 1, n 1) and y
j
(j = 1, m 1) related to internal grid points, the following
double spline evaluation is performed:
y
x;i
s
1
X
x
; Y
x
; x
x;i
i 1; n 1
y
y;j
s
2
X
y
; Y
y
; x
y;j
j 1; m 1
17
Normalized, non dimensional values obtained by relations
(17) are nally used to generate dimensional coordinate of
grid intersection points with the following recursive
expressions:
l
x;i
l
x;i1
Dx l
x;i1
y
x;i
; l
x;0
0; i 1; n 1
l
y;j
l
y;j1
Dy l
y;j1
y
y;j
; l
y;0
0; j 1; m 1
18
Fig. 9AD shows how the dimensional attribution works.
In this example, design vectors Y
x
and Y
y
are supposed
to consist respectively of six and three control points, while
the actual topology assumes n = 4, m = 5.
Initially the normalized grid is represented equally
spaced in both x and y direction (Fig. 9C); the resulting
x
x,i
coordinates of the intersection points are evaluated
through the s
1
spline (Fig. 9A) and the related output
values y
x,i
are used to indent hierarchically physical coor-
dinates l
x,i
along the x direction. The same procedure is
replied in y direction processing the x
y,j
coordinates
through the s
2
spline (Fig. 9B). The resulting modied
geometry is shown in Fig. 9D. Deliberately, no implicit
symmetries were imposed.
The geometrical model is nally completed by two fur-
ther continuous parameters tk
x
and tk
y
, which dene uni-
form wall thickness in x and y directions in terms of
percent values referred to the longest cell wall present in
the actual grid.
5.1.1. Mathematical modelling of design variables
In order to furnish a better understanding of the grid
parametric construction, let consider the following numer-
ical example based on ve-point splines (p = 4) for both x
and y coordinates.
Let n = 7, Y
x
= (0.1, 0.1, 0.18, 0.6, 0.65)
T
, m = 4,
Y
y
= (0.2, 0.15, 0.23, 0.52, 0.35)
T
, tk
x
= 0.01, tk
y
= 0.02
be the values of the actual design set, and Dx = 180,
Dy = 20 the xed overall dimensions of the grid cross-
section.
Step (1): A normalized 7 4 cell grid, having ve equally
spaced spline control points along both x and y
directions, is dened into a unit square with ori-
gin placed on the top-left corner; i.e.
X
x
= X
y
= (0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0)
T
.
Step (2): Eqs. (13) and (14) are solved for the x-spanned
spline; a piecewise cubic interpolation evaluation
is then performed for each x coordinate of the
n 1 internal crossing points of the grid, i.e:
SplineX
x
; Y
x
; 0:1429; 0:2857; 0:4286; 0:5714;
0:7143; 0:8571
T

0:1195; 0:0948; 0:1197; 0:2822; 0:5404; 0:7223

T
19
where, for sake of brevity, Spline operator means
cubic interpolation over a set of given points.
Step (3): Non dimensional values obtained by (19) are
converted into dimensional ones via recursive
expression (18-1):
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1725
Xx
5 Xx
0
Xx
1
Xx
2 Xx
4
0
1 3 2
y
x,3
y
x,1
y
x,2
1
A
D
Xx
3
l
x,1
= Dx
*
y
x,1
l
x,2
= l
x,1
+(Dx-l
x,1
)
*
y
x,2
l
x,3
= l
x,2
+(Dx-l
x,2
)
*
y
x,3
s
1
(Y
x
)
0
Xy
0
Xy
1
Xy
2
1
y
y,1
l
y,1
l
y,2
l
y,3
l
y,4
s
2
(Y
y
)
2
3
4
2 3
B
Yx
2
Yx
3
Yx
4
Yx
0
Yy
0
Yy
1
Yy
2 x
x,1
x
x,2 x
x,3
x
y,1
C
Fig. 9. (AD) Control splines with related geometrical properties attribution.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
Fig. 10. Grid structure numerical example; topological conguration (wall thickness not reported).
1726 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
l
x;1
1800:1195 21:5100
l
x;2
21:510018021:5100 0:0948 36:5349
l
x;3
36:534918036:5349 0:1197 53:7077
l
x;4
53:707718053:7077 0:2822 89:3474
l
x;5
89:347418089:3474 0:5404 138:3361
l
x;6
138:3361180138:3361 0:7223 168:4299
l
x;7
180
20
Step (4): Each cell-length is computed as l
x,i
l
x, i1
(i = 1,
n; l
x,0
= 0) i.e.: (21.5100, 15.0249, 17.1728,
35.6397, 48.9887, 30.0938, 11.5701); uniform wall
thickness along x direction is obtained multiply-
ing the longest cell wall by tk
x
design variable:
Max21:5100; 15:0249; 17:1728; 35:6397;
48:9887; 30:0938; 11:5701 0:01 0:4899 21
Steps (2), (3) (expression (18-2)) and (4) are replied for y
direction; briey:
SplineX
y
; Y
y
; 0:25; 0:50:75
T
0:15; 0:23; 0:52
T
22
l
y;1
20 0:1500 3:0000
l
y;2
3:0000 20 3:0000 0:2300 6:9100
l
y;3
6:9100 20 6:9100 0:5200 13:7168
l
y;4
20
23
Max3:0000; 3:9100; 6:8068; 6:2832 0:02 0:1257 24
Fig. 10 shows the resulting arrangement of the cross-
section.
5.1.2. Grid structure procedure set-up and optimization
results
In order to perform the optimization tasks herein
described, a specic tool was used. The ProGenie program
developed by the rst author is a general-purpose
Table 1
Design parameters, ranges, type and dynamic resolution for the grid structure
DV Type Min Max Resolution (bit) DV Type Min Max Resolution (bit)
Nsx Integer 2 9 3 3 3 3 3 Y
y1
Real 0.05 0.2 8 8 12 12 15
Y
x1
Real 0.05 0.2 8 8 12 12 15 Y
y2
Real 0.05 0.2 8 8 12 12 15
Y
x2
Real 0.05 0.2 8 8 12 12 15 Y
y3
Real 0.1 0.3 8 8 12 12 15
Y
x3
Real 0.1 0.3 8 8 12 12 15 Y
y4
Real 0.1 0.4 8 8 12 12 15
Y
x4
Real 0.1 0.4 8 8 12 12 15 Y
y5
Real 0.1 0.8 8 8 12 12 15
Y
x5
Real 0.1 0.8 8 8 12 12 15 Tkx Real 0.1 0.12 8 8 8 8 8
Nsy Integer 2 5 2 2 2 2 2 Tky Real 0.1 0.12 8 8 8 8 8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2.25
2.3
2.35
2.4
2.45
2.5
2.55
2.6
2.65
2.7
x 10
4
Generations
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

L
o
a
d

[
N
]
Fig. 11. Grid structure optimisation; buckling load (N).
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1727
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Generations
T
o
p
o
l
o
g
y

P
a
r
s
.

[
a
d
]
n
m
Fig. 12. Grid structure optimisation; topological parameters (ad).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Generations
S
p
l
i
n
e

Y
x

C
o
o
r
d
s

[
a
d
]
Yx1
Yx2
Yx3
Yx4
Yx5
Fig. 13. Grid structure optimisation; s
1
spline control points (ad).
1728 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
optimization environment with a unique bit-masking ori-
ented genetic engine allowing high performances and exi-
bility for the nal user. Via its programmable interface to
external codes, ProGenie was coupled with a home-made
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0.1
0.105
0.11
0.115
0.12
0.125
Generations
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

[
a
d
]
Tkx
Tky
Fig. 15. Grid structure optimisation; s
2
wall thickness parameters (ad).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Generations
S
p
l
i
n
e

Y
y

C
o
o
r
d
s

[
a
d
]
Yy1
Yy2
Yy3
Yy4
Yy5
Fig. 14. Grid structure optimisation; s
2
spline control points (ad).
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1729
program implementing the structural calculus engine for
the semi-analytical method. For the optimization proce-
dure several runs were preliminary performed, modifying
main genetic parameters as population size, couples and
generations. For sake of brevity, the faster procedure, per-
formed with a small population of 30 individuals per 20
generations, is herein shown. To increase the convergence
speed, a ve-point time envelope table for bit resolution,
crossover composition, mutation rate and other minor
parameters was dened. Using layer-composition feature
oered by BMOGA, a hybrid one-cut/bit-to-bit crossover
was used during initial generations. In Table 1 design
parameters with related ranges and resolutions are summa-
rized. Cross-section dimensions Dx and Dy were set to 180
and 20 mm, respectively and a steel material
(E = 210,000 N/mm
2
; m = 0.3) was considered.
In Figs. 1116 the optimization results are reported as
time-histories of values referred to best congurations. In
Fig. 11 the buckling load is shown. Topological parameters
are reported in Fig. 12, while Figs. 13 and 14 collect the y
coordinate values of s
1
and s
2
splines control points respec-
tively. Wall thickness attribution is represented in Fig. 15.
Finally in Fig. 16 the reached best design is shown as topo-
logical layout. Best design set (design variables and Obj
function values) is also listed in Table 2.
5.2. Weight minimisation of a stiened composite panel
In this second example the optimisation of a composite
panel provided with both geometrical and topological
design variables is illustrated. The proposed structure is
very similar to other ones already described in literature
as test-case for buckling analysis in composite stiened
panels [25]. It consists of a simply supported stiened panel
with xed length and depth dimensions (900 600 mm). In
Fig. 17 a pictorial view of the panel is shown. The panel is
optimised for minimum weight and subject to a critical
load not below 250 N mm
1
.
Carbonepoxy composite material (E
1
= 92600 N/mm
2
;
E
2
= 7730 N/mm
2
; m
12
= 0.36; G
12
= 3820 N/mm
2
; q =
1.431E6 kg/mm
2
) with a constant 0.07 mm ply thickness
was dened.
A variable number of equally spaced composite stien-
ers are disposed along the shorter way and controlled by
the integer design variable Nst. For symmetry purposes,
this variable denes the number of stieners on the half-
length of the panel. Stieners present a xed height
(30 mm) and a common cross-section that can be arranged
in several fashions: T-shaped, hat-shaped, I-shaped and C-
shaped. An integer four-valued design variable, named Stp,
makes the choice of the geometrical shape. In addition, a
dimensional design variable Cle is used to rene the shape
in each cross-section type: i.e. the horizontal cap extension
in T, hat and C-shaped sections. In order to satisfy coher-
ence requirements about design variables denition, also
the I-shaped section is arranged with this auxiliary param-
eter. This way a double-thickness vertical ange (web plus
cap) is also allowed.
Each panel element (plate, web and cap) is formed by an
external skin and a core component. The skin component,
surrounding plate, web and cap parts, is the same for the
entire panel and consists of two symmetric and balanced
quartets chosen from a list of eight preassembled eective
staking sequences, each one obtained combining 0,
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
Fig. 16. Grid structure optimisation; cross-section geometricaltopological conguration.
1730 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
+45, 45 and 90 plies properly. The integer design var-
iable Qls in the range (18) is used to make the choice. Plate
core is organised in a more complex way as it consists of a
variable number of couples of layers. Analogously to the
skin assembly procedure, each couple is chosen from a
pre-compiled list; in this case six combinations of two plies,
extracted by the same basic orientations previously
reported.
In Fig. 18AD geometrical and topological features of
the composite panel are summarized. In Fig. 18A the class
of stiener cross-section type, formed by four dierent
shapes, is represented; for each cross-section shape, the cor-
responding Stp value is reported. In Fig. 18B a detail of the
external skin with related staking sequence options is
shown. Finally, Fig. 18C and D shows a pictorial view of
the variable staking sequence for plate, web and cap cores,
with a list reporting the allowed couples.
The integer design parameter Npc, dened on interval
(1, 8), selects the actual number of ply couples in the
half-thickness of the plate. Unlike ply assignment for
the skin component, a direct coding of the staking
Table 2
Grid structure best design set (design variables and obj function)
DV Type Value DV Type Value
Nsx Integer 9 Y
y1
Real 0.18887143
Y
x1
Real 0.06992248 Y
y2
Real 0.09874416
Y
x2
Real 0.14610127 Y
y3
Real 0.29082614
Y
x3
Real 0.21485947 Y
y4
Real 0.31915647
Y
x4
Real 0.34317148 Y
y5
Real 0.33520615
Y
x5
Real 0.23546252 Tkx Real 0.10290197
Nsy Integer 2 Tky Real 0.11749019
Bkl Obj 2.65656445E + 4 Vol Sv
a
727.545532
a
Vol function only monitored, not constrained.
l
skin
skin
h
l
web
cap
l
1 3 stiff
n
2
Fig. 17. Pictorial view of the stiened composite panel.
Cap core, 4 n 8
Web core, 4 n 8
Plate core, 4 n 32
Skin , n = 16
External skin stack sequence assigment
Spline Value Staking sequence
1 [0; +45; -45; 90]
2 [0; 90; +45; -45]
3 [+45; -45; 0; 90]
4 [+45; -45; 90; 0]
5 [90; +45; -45; 0]
6 [90; 0; +45; -45]
7 [+45; 0; 90; -45]
8 [+45; 90; 0; -45]
ply
ext
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Qls parameter Staking sequence
1 [0; 0]
2 [0; 90]
3 [90; 0]
4 [90; 90]
5 [+45; -45]
6 [-45; +45]
Internal skin, web and cap stack sequence
assigment
ply
web
skin
ply
ply
cap
Ply ranges for skin, web and cap in the full tikness
1
2
3
n - 2
ply
n - 1
n
ply
ply
A
B C
D
Stp=4
Stp=3
Stp=2
Stp=1
Fig. 18. (AD) Skin, cap, web variables and stieners cross-section type.
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1731
sequence for the plate core via integer pointer is not
allowed, due to its intrinsic variability in number; i.e. a
well-dened optimisation problem requires a xed num-
ber of design variables. An indirect coding is therefore
performed using again a spline-based attribution law,
spanned over the core half-thickness and conditioned to
return integer values in the interval (1, 6). Eight equally
spaced spline control points P
i
(i = 1, 8) are dened for
the purpose, and the related independent coordinates
P
y,i
are used as design variables. For each ply couple
present in the actual conguration, the middle-plane
coordinate (i.e. the interface plane coordinate) is used
to evaluate the spline. The resulting value is then trans-
formed into a pointer to a table containing ply combina-
tions. Fig. 19 shows this spline-based procedure for the
staking sequence assignment in the plate core.
External skin
Couple 1
Couple 2
Couple N
..
..
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table pointer
Symmetry plane
P
y,1
P
y,8
P
y,2
Fig. 19. Spline-based ply assignment for plate core.
Table 3
Design parameters, description, ranges, type and dynamic resolution for the stiened panel
DV Description Type Min Max Envelope resolution (bit)
0 1 2 3 4
Qls Skin quartet sequence pointer Integer 1 8 3 3 3 3 3
Npc Ply couple number (plate, half-thickness) Integer 1 8 3 3 3 3 3
P
y,18
Spline control points coordinates (plate) Real[s] 0 1 8 8 12 12 15
Nst Stieners number (half-quantity) Integer 1 4 2 2 2 2 2
Stp Stiener type Integer 1 4 2 2 2 2 2
Nwc Ply couple number (web, half-thickness) Integer 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
W
y,12
Spline control points coordinates (web) Real[s] 0 1 8 8 12 12 15
Cle Cap length Real 2 5 12 12 12 12 12
Ncc Ply couple number (cap, half-thickness) Integer 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
C
y,12
Spline control points coordinates (cap) Real[s] 0 1 8 8 12 12 15
Table 4
Stiened panel optimization; envelope parameters
Individuals = 50; couples = 25; generations = 50
Envelope 0 1 2 3 4
Generation range 010 1120 2130 3140 4150
Selection Random walk Random walk Roulette wheel Roulette wheel Roulette wheel
Scaling Linear Linear Linear
Mutation 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06
Crossover
a
1
*
+ 2
*
1 1 1 1
a
(1) One-cut crossover; (2) bit-by-bit crossover. (1
*
) Applied on real related sub-strings; (2
*
) applied on integer-related sub-strings.
1732 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
The web core is assembled similarly than the plate core,
but with a smaller number of allowable couples (max 2 in
the half-thickness). Therefore, instead of a cubic spline, a
straight line with only two control points W
y1,2
is used to
make this ply assignment. The same procedure, with spe-
cic control points is also applied to the cap core (C
y1,2
).
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2.7
2.75
2.8
2.85
2.9
2.95
3
3.05
Generations
W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)
Fig. 20. Stiened panel optimisation; structural weight.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Generations
Q
l
s

(
S
k
i
n

q
u
a
r
t
e
t

s
e
q
)

[
a
d
]

&

N
p
c

(
P
l
y

c
o
u
p
l
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
)

[
a
d
]
Qls
Npc
Fig. 21. Stiened panel optimisation; skin quartet sequence and core ply couple number.
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1733
Table 3 summarizes design variables, with range, type and
a short description.
Every skin or core component is arranged to return any-
way a balanced and symmetric laminate in the full-
thickness.
5.2.1. Procedure set-up and optimisation results for the
stiened panel
Likewise preliminary example, also for the stiened
panel optimisation, the BMOGA evolution engine has
been set to perform a dynamic, multi-layer crossover; in
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Generations
P
y
,
1
.
.
.
P
s
,
8

S
p
l
i
n
e

C
o
n
t
r
o
l

p
o
i
n
t
s

c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
s

[
a
d
]
Py1
Py2
Py3
Py4
Py5
Py6
Py7
Py8
Fig. 22. Stiened panel optimisation; P
y,1
, . . ., P
y,8
spline control points for core staking assignment.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
Generations
P
l
y

c
o
u
p
l
e

n
u
m
b
e
r

(
W
e
b

a
n
d

c
a
p
)

[
a
d
]
Web
Cap
Fig. 23. Stiened panel optimisation; ply couple number in web and cap core.
1734 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
this case to process in parallel specic partitions of the
genetic string with dedicated rules. When a direct binary
representation for integer design variables is used, sub-
strings codifying integer values exhibit a much shorter
bit length than sub-strings related to real values. As conse-
quence, using a standard crossover much more eorts are
required to perform a satisfying bit shuing that could
involve integer variables during the initial generations.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Generations
C
l
e

(
C
a
p

l
e
n
g
t
h
)

[
m
m
]
Fig. 24. Stiened panel optimisation; cap length.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
Generations
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
N
/
m
m
)
Infeasible region
Fig. 25. Stiened panel optimisation; buckling load.
L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737 1735
To increase convergence speed, in the rst ten generations
the layer-composition feature for genetic operators oered
by BMOGA has been used to set: (i) a bit-by-bit crossover
operating only on integer-related sub-strings; (ii) a simple
one-cut crossover applied to the remaining ones. In subse-
quent generations a canonical simple one-cut crossover
was applied to the whole binary string. In Table 4 the
dynamic envelope of main genetic parameters used in the
optimisation task is summarised; every envelope point
takes ten generations.
In Fig. 20 the time-history of the structural weight is
reported; Figs. 2124 show the progress of some major
design variables, in particular: skin quartet sequence, num-
ber of ply couples in the plate core (half-thickness), spline
control points for ply sequence assignment in plate core,
number of ply couples in web and cap cores and cap length,
Time-histories of web and cap spline control points were
omitted for sake of brevity. In Fig. 25 the constrained
buckling load with the assigned lower bound is reported.
In Fig. 26 the sketch of the resulting best design, com-
plete of lay-up composition for skin and core parts (plate,
web and cap), is shown.
According to the procedure shown in Fig. 18, ply
sequences were obtained by decoding spline interpolations
evaluated at each ply couple interface plane rst, and then
using the resulting pointers on the pre-compiled list of
Fig. 18B. Spline evaluation returned the following pointers:
(1, 6, 3, 1, 5)
T
; (1); (1, 1)
T
for plate, web and cap,
respectively.
The best design set in detailed form, including object
and state functions, is anyway reported in Table 5.
6. Conclusions
In the present paper the topological optimization of
arbitrary isotropic/orthotropic thin structures, arranged
in grid-based congurations or stiened panels was shown.
The maximum buckling load and the structural weight
were involved as constraints and/or objective functions in
two optimization examples. In order to achieve computa-
tionally ecient tasks, a bit-masking oriented genetic pro-
cedure was used and coupled with a expressly developed
method for equilibrium stability analysis. This method
has proved to be eective and accurate in the prediction
of the arising buckling phenomena and very ecient from
a computational point of view, as it resulted considerably
faster than any equivalent buckling analysis performed
via nite element method. The main drawback experienced
using this numerical approach was the need for assuring a
consistent geometrical slenderness (width to thickness
ratio) for each nite strip constituting the numerical model.
This problem is somewhat increased in any optimization
procedure that makes substantial topological modications
with sudden changes in shape and dimensions. In the grid
structure optimization, a near xed-slenderness control
was successfully experimented.
About genetic procedure, the use of BMOGA has sim-
plied an ecient denition of dedicated genetic operators
applied on specic partitions of the genetic string.
Plate lamination sequence
Skin lamination sequence
Cap lamination sequence
Web lamination sequence
[00]s
[0; 0; -45; 45; 90; 0; 0; 0; 45; -45]s
[0; 90; 45; -45]s
[0; 0; 0; 0]s
Fig. 26. Stiened panel optimisation; best design.
Table 5
Stiened panel best design set (design variables, object and state functions)
DV Type Value DV Type Value
Qls Integer 2 Nst Integer 4
Npc Integer 5 Stp Integer 3
P
y,1
Real 0.00392157 Nwc Integer 1
P
y,2
Real 0.19607843 W
y,1
Real 0.19215687
P
y,3
Real 0.99607843 W
y,2
Real 0.04705882
P
y,4
Real 0.09019608 Cle Real 11.7533579
P
y,5
Real 0.72549021 Ncc Integer 2
P
y,6
Real 0.11372549 C
y,1
Real 0.04313726
P
y,7
Real 0.57254905 C
y,2
Real 0.09803922
P
y,8
Real 0.23529412
Wgt Obj 2.66494012 Bkl SV 251.013138
1736 L. Iuspa, E. Ruocco / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 17181737
Consequently, optimization tasks with a limited amount of
resources in terms of population size and generations were
successfully performed. About the preliminary test-case,
the spline based approach for the grid-shaped cross-section
has proved to be simple to implement and very eective for
the denition of a consistent arrangement of the topologi-
cal features. A similar technique was also applied to the
composite panel problem for the staking sequence deni-
tion; specically to dene a robust rule for ply assignment
with a variable number of layers using a xed-length design
vector.
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