William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Slope stability is derived from two different forces, driving forces and resisting forces. Driving forces encourages downslope movement while resisting forces discourages movement. Hence, when driving forces exceeds resisting forces, the slope becomes unstable and results in slope movement. The main driving force is gravity and the main resisting force is the shear strength of the material. Factors such as the angle of slope, climatic, slope material, and water adds to the effect of gravity. For example, slope movement occurs more often on steeper slopes. The driving force can also be increased with the addition of water which contributes to the total mass that is subjected to gravity. Resisting forces are the direct opposite of driving forces which prevents downslope movement and is dependent on the shear strength of the slope material. Shear strength is dependent on the cohesion and internal friction. Water contributes to resisting forces only when the pores between the material particles are partially filled with water. The particles become cohesive with the addition of water and is usually termed as suction (Nelson, 2011). To analyze the factor of safety of a slope more accurately, the effects of excess pore water pressure needs to be considered. In this research, the effects of excess pore water pressure on slope stability will be studied. This chapter serves as a background for later chapters of this thesis and discusses the related literature briefly in: common methods of slope stability analysis; excess pore water pressure generation, and properties of soft clays in Malaysia.

2.2 Slope stability analysis methods

The safety of natural slopes, embankments, excavations, landfills and earth dams are usually evaluated by means of slope stability analysis. Throughout the years, slope stability analysis has evolved to advanced computer computations and probabilistic analysis from tedious manual hand calculations. The understanding about slope stability problems has been improved with the improvement of slope stability tools. The common methods utilized in most slope stability analysis will be discussed. In industry, limit equilibrium methods are usually used to evaluate the stability of a slope. The limit equilibrium method involves assuming force or moment equilibrium or both in order to solve the equilibrium problem. Numerous limit equilibrium methods for slope stability analysis has been developed and applied throughout the years. Methods such as Janbu s generalized procedure of slices (GPS)(1968), Spencer s method (1967), Morgenstern and Price s m ethod (1965), Lowe and Karafiath force equilibrium methods

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

(1960), Simplified Bishop s method (1955) and Ordinary method of slices (1936) have been used in the industry. Slope stability charts have also been produced based on these limit equilibrium methods which are useful for preliminary analysis and quick estimation of the stability of a slope. Some of the slope stability charts that have been produced are such as Taylor (1937,1948); Bishop and Morgenstern (1960); Spencer (1967); Janbu (1968); Hunter and Schuster (1971) and Cousins (1978). However, in practice, detailed slope stability analysis is usually performed using a computer program and most of the available computer programs are based on the limit equilibrium approach. Other methods of analysis such as limit analysis or finite element analysis, although being more rigorous than limit equilibrium procedures, are not discussed due to the limitation of program used in this thesis and are also more complex. Currently, there is no single slope factor of safety analysis method which is preferred over the other by agencies and is left to the engineer in charge. In the industry, the method chosen is usually based on familiarity with the method rather than based on the suitability of it such as conditions of the slope. In this respect, most cases are either under designed or over designed. To prevent this, the most appropriate analysis method should be chosen by gathering field data and observations to study the failure mechanism. Two dimensional slope stability methods are the most common used methods among engineers due to their simplicity. However, these methods are based on simplifying assumptions to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional problem and therefore the accuracy of the analysis results vary between the different analysis methods. Two dimensional slope stability methods using limit equilibrium technique can be divided into the method of slices, circular methods, noncircular methods. The method of slices is based on dividing the slope into different slices and analysis the stability of the failing mass taking into consideration the static equilibrium of the slices individually and the overall equilibrium of the failing mass as whole. The static equilibrium of the slices can be achieved by different assumptions including neglecting or considering the interslice forces and the moment equilibrium of the slices. On the other hand, circular and noncircular limit equilibrium methods consider the equilibrium of the whole failing mass only, and therefore the internal equilibrium of the sliding mass is not considered. Such methods may not be appropriate if the slope remediation method involves installing structural elements in the sliding mass such as slope stabilizing piles (Albataineh, 2006).

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

In the method of slices, the soil mass above the slip surface is separated into a number of vertical slices and the equilibrium of each of these slices is taken into account. The actual number of the slices depends on the slope geometry and soil profile. However, breaking the mass up into a series of vertical slices does not make the problem statically determinate. To obtain the factor of safety by utilizing method of slices, it is necessary to make assumptions to remove the extra unknowns and these assumptions are the key roles of distinguishing the methods. Most computer programs use the methods of slices, as they can handle irregular and complex slope geometries, variable soil and water conditions and also the effects of external boundary loads. Therefore, they are the most commonly used methods in slope stability analysis and will be briefly described below. 2.21 Ordinary method of slices This method is also known as "Swedish Circle Method" or "Fellenius'Method". It is the simplest of the method of slices. The interslice forces are ignored in this method because the resultant of the interslice forces acting on every slice is assumed to be parallel to its base (Fellenius, 1936). Factors of safety obtained using this method is conservative because only the moment equilibrium is satisfied. Hence, this method is seldom used today. 2.22 Simplified Bishop Method The method of slices is also used in this method to find the factor of safety with several assumptions listed: 1. The mass of soil is assumed to fail by rotation on a circular slip surface focused on a common position. Hence, for the factor of safety for non circular slip surfaces, this method is inaccurate and should not be used unless a frictional center of rotation is utilized (Anderson and Richards, 1987). 2. No shear stresses exist between the slices as the forces acting on the sides of the slices are considered to be horizontal (Bishop, 1955). 3. Summing the forces in vertical direction, the total normal force is considered to operate at the central of the base of each slice. Although this method does not fulfill complete static equilibrium, the method produces relatively accurate factors of safety. In comparison with the Ordinary method of slices, it is more accurate particularly for effective stress analysis with high pore water pressure (Bishop, 1955). Additionally, the factor of safety obtained by this method is shown by Wright et al. (1973) to be in agreement (within 5%) with those obtained from finite element procedures. The main drawback is that it is only applicable to circular slip surfaces.

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

2.23 Janbu s generalized method of slices (1957, 1973) This method utilizes an iterative process using vertical slices and any shape slip-surface. This method fulfills also conditions of equilibrium for the soil mass except for the last slice. To calculate the interslice forces, the moment equilibrium is considered at the central base of each slice. To make the problem statically determinate and make the overall moment equilibrium wholly satisfied, Janbu (1973) assumed a point of the line of thrust of the interslice forces as shown in figure 2.0, in which an imaginary line is drawn through the points where the interslice forces operate.

Figure 2.0: Line of thrust showing the points of the interslice forces on the slice (Duncan and Wright, 2005)

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

2.24 Spencer's Method

Figure 2.1: Spencer s method (Anderson and Richards, 1987) Spencer s method is developed for circular slip surfaces but can be extended to noncircular slip surfaces by adopting a frictional center of rotation. The assumptions made are that the interslice forces are parallel so that they have the equivalent angles: X X (2.0) tan U ! L ! R EL ER where is the angle from the horizontal of the resultant interslices forces Taking into account overall force and moment equilibrium, Spencer (1967) derived the normal force on the base of the slice by summing the forces perpendicular to the interslice forces and obtained two values of factor of safety, (Fm) & (Ff). The factor of safety (Fm) can be derived based on the overall moment equilibrium about a common point (0) and the factor of safety (Ff) can be derived based on the overall force equilibrium. This method uses trial and error procedure to solve the equations. The factors of safety are equivalent at a certain angle of the interslice forces satisfying force and moment equilibrium (Spencer, 1967). 2.25 Morgenstern and Price s Method (1965) This method considers the normal, tangential and moment equilibrium for every slice in both circular and non-circular slip surfaces. The relationship between the interslice shear forces (X) and the interslice normal forces (E) is simplified by assuming:    (2.1) where, ( ) is an assumed function that varies continuously across the slip ( ) is an unknown scaling factor which is solved as part of the unknowns

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

In this method, the following unknowns are solved by means of equilibrium equations to calculate the vertical component on the interslice forces (X) using equation 2.1: y (F) factor of safety y ( ) the scaling factor y (P) the normal forces acting on the central position of the base of the slice y (E) the horizontal interslice force y (line of thrust) the position of the interslice forces 2.25 General Limit Equilibirum (GLE) Fredlund and Krahn (1977) developed an alternative method to Morgenstern and Price. Utilizing their formulation of the equations of equilibrium (GLE) combined with Morgenstern and price s assumptions (equation 2.1), they managed to produce similar results and satisfying the same elements of static equilibrium. However, the derivation is more consistent with other methods of slices and a comprehensive description of variation of the factor of safety with respect to is produced.

Ordinary Method of Slices

                   

Simplified Bishop Method

Janbu Generalised Procedure of Slices (GPS)

Spencer s Method

Satisfies moment equilibrium about the center of circle Functional for circular slip surfaces Neglects forces on the sides of the slices Applicable to non-homogeneous slopes and c- soils Inaccurate for effective stress analysis particularly for analysis with high pore water pressures Satisfies vertical and overall moment equilibrium Functional for circular slip surfaces The forces on the sides of the slices are horizontal Applicable to non-homogeneous slopes and c- soils More accurate than Ordinary method of slices particularly for analysis with high pore water pressures Fulfills every condition of equilibrium Functional for every shape of slip surface A point of the line of thrust of the interslice forces is assumed Suitable for rigorous analysis Fulfills every condition of equilibrium Functional for every shape of slip surface Parallel interslice forces The normal force (N) operates at the central point on the Applicable to all slope geometries and soil profiles The simplest complete equilibrium method

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

Morgenstern and Price s Method

 Fulfills every condition of equilibrium  Functional for every shape of slip surface  Interslice shear force is correlated interslice normal force by:

 Functional for all slope geometries and soil profiles  Complete equilibrium method that is rigorous and well established Table 2.0: Summary of Common Limit Equilibrium Methods (Modified after Duncan and Wright, 2005)

2.3 Excess pore water pressure generation

Excess pore water pressure can be induced by the building of embankment on an undrained foundation, seismic waves (e.g. earthquake), and external loads. The construction of an embankment on an un-drained soil structure exerts additional loading on the soil structure. External loadings such as a surcharge similarly adds additional weight to the soil structure. Seismic waves applies cyclic vertical and horizontal loads on the soil. These loads are supported by the water between the pores of a soil structure which increases the pressure in the water because of the limited space that the water can dissipate in an un-drained condition. The increase of pressure in the water is termed as excess pore water pressure. The pressure will then dissipate over a certain duration depending on the soil structure. Soft clayey soils takes the longest time for the dissipation of the buildup excess pore water pressure generated due to low permeability (Zhang, Cho, Pan, & Lu, 2009). In most cases of embankment construction, the end of construction stage is considered which is usually the most critical condition of excess pore water pressure buildup. For excess pore water pressure generation induced by earthquake, the excess pore water pressure builds up gradually due to the cyclic motions and will dissipate after the seismic event. In some cases, the excess pore water pressure may even build up after the seismic event for a certain duration (Aziz, 2010).

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

2.4 Effects of excess pore water pressure

For an un-drained soil structure, the soil strength is usually measured in terms of effective stress. The presence of excess pore water pressure lowers the effect of friction in the soil structure hence lowering the shear strength of the soil material holding onto the slope. Shear strength is the primary mobilized resistance towards instability of a slope. This happens because excess pore water pressure supports the weight of overlying soil or loads. Excess pore water pressure lowers the effective stress and instability of a slope occurs prior reaching zero effective stress (TAGA Engineering Software Ltd 2010, 2010).

2.5 General Characteristic of Clay and Formation in Malaysia

The term clay be used both to refer the size of a soil particle and the mineral type. In terms of size, it refers to soil particles that are of 0.002 mm in diameter or smaller. The size of the soil particle creates very little pores between the clay particles which resist most of the water movement and air through it. When clay turns wet, it swells and sticks together due to cohesion and when it dries, it shrinks and cracks. As for mineral type, there are three major clay minerals which are kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite (Tan, Gue, Ng, & Lee, 2004) (RAMAMOORTHY, 2007). In Malaysia, quaternary erosion due to drastic climatic and sea level changes has created widespread deposits of soft clayey soils of varying thickness ranging from 5 to 30 meters in coastal areas and major river valleys.

2.6 Marine Clay Properties in Malaysia

In geotechnical engineering, soft clayey soils (marine clays) as a material often present challenges to engineers. Soft clays are of low strength, highly compressible and are mostly sensitive to disturbances. Behavior of soft clayey soils are hard to predict and design engineers are often required to come up with an economical design yet with low safety factors which truly become a challenge. The properties of these soil have been reviewed and published by Ting et al. (1987), Abdullah and Chandra (1987), Huat et al. (1995), Chen and Tan (2003) and Saiful (2003). The properties published are listed in table 2.1 below:

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

Properties\Location Natural Moisture Content, w (%) Unit Weight, (kN/m3) Specific Gravity, Gs Liquid Limit, wL (%) Plastic Limit, wp (%) Plasticity Index, Ip References

South of Butterworth Sg Petani 15-112 37-97 15-44 20-62 22-101 19-126 23-56 13-49

SE Coast of Penang Island 34-89 28-150 22-47 20-81 50-100 14-16 50-150 30-70 20-80 Chen & Tan (2003)

Klang 100-140 13.216.8 2.452.65 106-142 26-42 Saiful (2003) 20-175 14.6-15 2.53-2.6 Abdullah & Chandra (1987)

Huat et al. (1995)

Table 2.1: Physical properties of Marine Clay in Malaysia Mitchell (1993) states that for any clay, the range of plastic limit values is always lower than the range of liquid limit values. From table 2.1, it can be observed that this is true. Table 2.1 also shows that marine clays possess liquid limits ranging from 19% to 150% and having moderate to extremely high plasticity. The clay percentage (particle size < 0.002 mm) generally varies from 35% to 60%, the silt percentage from 40% to 60% and the sand percentage less than 10% for marine clay soils (Cox, 1970). The index properties of clay is generally influenced by the principle minerals present in it. Geological age also affects engineering behavior of a clay deposit particularly moisture and plasticity which decreases in value with increasing age and depth (Cox, 1970). Additionally, the important parameters that govern the strength properties of clays are un-drained shear strength (Su), cohesion (c) and frictional angle ( ). Table 2.2 below shows undrained shear strength of Marine Clays in Malaysia. South of Sg Petani SE Coast of Penang Island S. Coast of Johor 2.5-69

Properties\Location

Butterworth

Klang

Undrained Shear Strength, Su 7.5-60 7-35 0-48 5-85 2 (kN/m ) Table 2.2: Undrained Shear Strength of Marine Clay in Malaysia from Huat et al. (1995)

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

Cohesion (c), is a measure of the forces that strengthen particles of soil together. Molecular forces between particles due to mutual particle attraction and the presence of moisture affects cohesion. Therefore, the cohesive force in a soil will vary according to its moisture content. Cohesion is highest in clay, partially exhibited in silts and up to no significance in sands (RAMAMOORTHY, 2007). Internal friction also known as angle of repose is the resistance of particles to sliding within the soil mass. Clay possesses low internal friction that varies with its moisture content (Das, 2004). Various laboratory such as the shear box test, the triaxial compression test and unconfined compression tests have been conducted to ascertain the shearing strength and angle of friction of soils. Generally, the effective friction angle ( ) decreases with the increase in plasticity index (Ip) (Bjerrum & Simons, 1960). Figure 2.3 shows the non linear correlation between and Ip.

Figure 2.3: Correlation between Effective Frictional Angle and Plasticity Index ( Bjerrum and Simons, 1960)

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

References
(2010). Retrieved 11 15, 2011, from TAGA Engineering Software Ltd 2010: http://www.tagasoft.com/docs/tslope/b4.html Abramson, F. (2001). General Slope Stability Concepts. Wiley. AHMAD, J. B., ZAIN, N. H., & ASHAARI, P. M. (2010). THE MODELLING OF LATERAL MOVEMENT OF SOFT SOIL USING FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS AND LABORATORY MODEL. UiTM. Albataineh, N. (2006). SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS USING 2D AND 3D METHODS. The University of Akron. America, D. O. (1997). SOIL DYNAMICS AND SPECIAL DESIGN ASPECTS. Aziz, A. H. (2010). Stability and Deformation Analysis of Embankment on Soft Clay. Universiti Teknologi Malaya. Barden, L. (1972). The relation of soil structure to the engineering geology of clay soil. Geological Society of London. Biscontin, G., Pestana, J., & Nadim, F. (2003). Seismic triggering of submarine slides in soft cohesive soil deposits. International Journal of Marine Geology, Geochemistry & Geophysics . Das, B. M. (2004). Principles of Foundation Engineering (Seventh Edition). Stamford: Cengage Learning. Huat, B. B. (1993). Behaviour of Soft Clay Foundation beneath an Embankment. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. Indraratna, B., & Balasubramaniam, A. S. (1992). PERFORMANCE OF TEST EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTED TO FAILURE ON SOFT MARINE CLAY. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 118, No.1,January . Kim, J., & Salgado, R. (1999). LIMIT ANALYSIS OF SOIL SLOPES SUBJECTED TO PORE-WATER PRESSURES. JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING , 58. Mitchell, J. K., & Soga, K. (2005). Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour. John Wiley & Sons. Nelson, P. S. (2011, 11 11). Factors that Influence Slope Stability. Retrieved 11 2011, from Tulane University: http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/slopestability.htm RAMAMOORTHY, S. A. (2007). CORRELATION OF ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE CLAY FROM CENTRAL WEST COAST OF MALAYSIA. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Sadrekarimi, A., & Stark, T. D. (2010). Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. Fifth International Conference and Symposium, (p. 9). San Diego. Tan, Y., Gue, S., Ng, H., & Lee, P. (2004). SOME GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF KLANG CLAY. Gue & Partners Sdn Bhd.

William Ngui (003448)

The University of Nottingham

United States Society on Dams. (2007). Strength of Materials for Embankment Dams. United States of America: United States Society on Dams. Wright, S. G. (2005). Evaluation of Soil Shear Strengths for Slope and Retaining Wall Stability Analyses with Emphasis on High Plasticity Clays. Zhang, Z., Cho, C., Pan, Q., & Lu, X. (2009). Experimental Investigation on Excess Pore Water Pressure in Soft Soil-Foundations under Minor Shocks. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.