IMPROVED WATER RESOURCES GOVERNANCE IN THE OTTAWA RIVER WATERSHED: A PERSPECTIVE ON DAM MANAGEMENT

PADM 5116 Final Paper December 1, 2011

Matthew Retallack ID # 100863468

Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 HISTORICAL TRANSECT 2.1 Dams and Environmental Flow 2.2 History of Governance and Intervention 2.3 Evolution of an Integrated Approach to Water Management 3.0 FRAMEWORKS FOR INSTITUTIONAL REFORM 3.1 Institutional Factors 3.2 Cooperation, Collaboration and Adaptive Management 3.3 Participation and the Public 4.0 ANALYSIS 4.1 Case Studies 4.2 Analysis of the Ottawa River Watershed 4.3 Recommendations 5.0 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 2 3 3 4 6 8 9 11 14 15 16 19 22 23 24

1.0 Introduction
The Ottawa River is the largest tributary to the St. Lawrence River. One and a half million people live within its watershed and along its shores. For most of its length it acts as a political border between Ontario and Quebec; between French and English Canada. It has a diverse and varied economy and large urban and rural populations. Accordingly there exist a wide range of interests in the Ottawa River watershed and a corresponding set of expectations from the resource.

Water levels in the Ottawa River are controlled by dozens of dams and these levels are optimised for flood control and generation of hydroelectricity. These management objectives are supported by interjurisdictional cooperation through the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board. However many other social, economic and environmental objectives are not being addressed in a similarly coordinated way and may be negatively impacted as a result. This gives rise to concerns regarding the sustainability of water resources management in the Ottawa River Basin. To address these concerns the central question for this paper is how can the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board better respond to the range of interests and, perhaps drawing on existing water governance infrastructure, broaden the range of socio-economic and environmental benefits that are realised through more effective dam management?

To understand the current conditions in the river it is necessary to look back and follow the historical progression of human activities in the Ottawa River Basin. Commercial and industrial activities alongside expanded settlement patterns are the result of a series of often uncoordinated decisions being made at all levels of government (Harvey, 1979). These decisions, made in the context of societal norms and scientific understanding of their time, define conditions along the Ottawa River as we know them today (Benidickson, 2010). As a result of these decisions we have a legacy of both settlement and hard infrastructure, and governance in terms of institutions and approaches. The nature of governance in the basin provides insight into the opportunities and constraints for improved approaches to the management of levels and flows, as affect the broader

array of socio-economic and environmental interests. Weaving together an understanding of where we are and how we have arrived at this place with current theory and empirical case study evidence, it will be possible to offer contextualised and well founded recommendations for next steps. Accordingly the objectives of this study are threefold: 1. Briefly outline the history of development in the Ottawa River basin. Related governance factors will be discussed alongside broader historical trends in water resources governance. This contextualised understanding of governance in the basin will be used as a basis for analysis. 2. Undertake an analysis and discussion of policy opportunities and challenges for improved water governance in the basin drawing on current theory and empirical evidence. This analysis will be focussed on the management of water levels and flows as affected by the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board and related legislation. 3. Based on this analysis a set of policy recommendations will be presented alongside a gap analysis identifying questions for future consideration.

2.0 Historical Transect

2.1 Dams and Environmental Flow
Dams have long been used to meet human needs for water. Primary functions could include the provision of water for municipal, agricultural or industrial use, control of water levels and flood risk management, provision of recreational opportunities, or some combination of these objectives. However dams are also known to have undesirable ecological and socio-economic consequences. By altering natural variation in water levels dams impact wetlands, habitat and reproductive patterns (Richter et al, 2003). They also impede or in some cases arrest fish passage, with associated ecological effects (Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). Dams can impact First Nations cultural rights, affect shoreline property values and quality of life, or in extreme cases result in forced relocation. In many parts of the world these issues have led to an overall reduction in large dam development; however, increasing support for green energy may renew interest

in harnessing hydroelectric power (Brusey et al, 2009). At the same time growing concerns over loss of biodiversity and related environmental issues, as well as increased visibility and sensitivity around social and cultural impacts, challenge new and existing hydroelectric projects, and will have to be addressed in new and substantive way (Cushing, 2002).

In the Ottawa River dams have blocked migration route for species such as American shad and eels, flooded habitat and changed traditional spawning grounds (Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). Modification of water quality parameters including temperature, nutrient levels and dissolved oxygen have further impacted habitat as have rapid fluctuations of water, which can cause physiological stress and upset spawning cycles (Ottawa Riverkeeper, 2006). The construction of dams and subsequent creation of large reservoirs have flooded land identified by the Algonquin First Nation as traditional territory (Ontario Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 2011) and large fluctuations are known to affect shorelines and recreational opportunities.

2.2 History of Governance and Intervention

The story of industrial activity and institutional response stretches back into the nineteenth century. The logging industry found vast resources within the Ottawa River watershed however control structures were needed to moderate flows in the river in order to reliably move these resources to production and further on to market. This resulted in the construction of low dams and timber slides (Harvey, 1979; Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). Lumber mills were built to process the wood and these drew on the river as a source of power. They also disposed of large quantities of sawdust and other waste materials directly in the river. In an early example of ecosystems thinking Dr. E. Van Cortlandt, Ottawas officer of health in the late 1800s, observed these materials to be negatively impacting spawning grounds, navigation and public health. However it was navigation concerns that prompted Ottawa to develop federal legislation in 1867 prohibiting the disposal of mill waste in navigable waters. In 1886 this legislation was strengthened based on concern for fisheries, although due to the economic importance of

the logging industry mill owners were able to get exemptions. These exemptions were ultimately done away with in 1894 (Benidickson, 2010).

With the dawn of the twentieth century lumber interests expanded into pulp and paper. This brought a new set of water quality concerns in addition to an increased demand for energy and the beginnings of large scale development of hydroelectric infrastructure. Seasonal flow variability combined with expanding downstream settlement gave rise to an increased need for flood control, providing additional impetus for dam construction (Harvey, 1979; Benidickson, 2010), with dams eventually being built and operated by the federal government as well as private sector interests from Ontario and Quebec.

The interests of hydropower generation and flood control however are not perfectly aligned. In order to buffer peak flows associated with spring melt waters, large amounts of water need to be released from principle reservoirs in the upper reaches of the Ottawa River (Haxton & Chubbuck, 2002). This equates to a loss of revenue from the generation of hydroelectricity, giving owner operators an incentive to maintain reservoir levels. In 1962 the federal government along with the provinces of Ontario and Quebec established the Ottawa River Engineering Board provide hydrological information to users and enable better coordination of infrastructure. Nonetheless in 1974 and 1976 spring flooding resulted in $10 million of compensation being paid by various levels of government to residents in the Ottawa River basin, with another $21.5 million in compensation being paid to residents in the Montreal area. In 1977 the Ottawa River Regulation Planning Committee was established to address the situation. Their mandate was to coordinate the regulation of levels and flows in the Ottawa River taking into account hydropower production, flood protection, navigation, low water problems, water quality needs and recreation (Harvey, 1979). Their chief recommendation was that ongoing coordination of dam operations was required.

In 1983 the Federal government and the governments of Quebec and Ontario signed An Agreement Respecting Ottawa River Basin Regulation. The Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board was prescribed by this agreement and given the mandate to provide flood

control while meeting the interests of various users, particularly hydroelectric power generation. The Board consists of one member each from the Federal Departments of Environment, Public Works, and Transport; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources; Quebec Ministry of the Environment; Ontario Hydro and Hydro Quebec.

2.3 Evolution of an Integrated Approach to Water Management

Over the years society has internalised the insights of people like Dr.van Cortlandt and come to understand that water management is complex. It provides or enables a multitude of goods and services upon which we depend, while at the same time our actions can impact or undermine the ecological systems that provide these services (Limburg et al, 2002; Fisher et al, 2008). This has given rise to an appreciation for the need to manage water resources in a more holistic and integrated way.

While the literature does offer examples of early approaches to water management that resemble aspects of what we currently call an integrated approach, the first modern institutions to embody Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles were Spains Confederaciones hidrogrcas, or Water Boards. Established by Royal Decree in 1926 these boards were tasked with managing public water resources on a watershed basis. Shortly thereafter in the 1940s development of the Tennessee River Basin was guided by an integrated approach to water resources planning. Then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority, David Lilienthal, noted that, the resources of the river were not only to be envisioned in their entirety, they were to be developed in that unity the waters, the land, and the forests together (Bandaragoda, 2010). Also in the 1940s we have the emergence of Conservation Authorities in Ontario. According to Conservation Ontario (2011), the central body for Ontarios network of non-profit Conservation Authorities, Ontario passed the Conservation Authorities Act in 1946 in response to concerns from agricultural, conservation and recreational interests that poor management of land, water and forests were resulting in a depletion of natural resources and associated effects such as soil loss and flooding. This legislation encouraged neighbouring watershed municipalities to jointly create Conservation Authorities to provide integrated

management of natural resources within the watershed. In the 1960s and 1970s responsibility for water management in England and Wales was increasing being shifted from local governments to river basin water management authorities (Watson, 2010), and a multi-disciplinary approach was used to develop an integrated water management plan in Germany.

By 1977 there was growing momentum behind an integrated watershed-based approach to water management when at a United Nations conference the IWRM approach was recommended as a means to coordinate competition for water between multiple users (Bandaragoda, 2010). Following this recommendation IWRM began to be formalised in the international arena. From the Dublin Statement (1992) four guiding principles were established: Principle 1: Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment Principle 2: Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels Principle 3: Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water Principle 4: Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised as an economic good

This Statement was commended by world leaders at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro later that same year, with conference participants recommending governments study the report and find ways to translate it into action. Focussed more broadly on sustainable development, Agenda 21 (1992), UNCEDs primary output, identified the following three key objectives for IWRM: 1. Priority should be given to meeting basic human needs and safeguarding ecosystem.

2. It should be carried at the level of the catchment basin or sub-basin, and should: a. use interactive and iterative multi-sectoral approaches that integrate technological, considerations; b. be based community needs and priorities within the framework of national economic development policy; c. be efficient and equitable with fully inclusive public participation in policy making and decision making; and, d. have institutional capacity for water policy to support sustainable development. 3. Targeted national action and sustainable resource use programmes should be prepared. socio-economic, environmental and human health

With these developments the concept of IWRM had become nuanced with its tenets broadly accepted as defining the standard for appropriate, progressive management of water resources. While there was still considerable room for further definition and refinement through research and application, generally speaking key features were now in place. Water was understood to be an essential resource supporting a number of social, economic and environmental objectives. Accordingly effective water management needed to coordinate multiple uses and be based on local needs and information. Decision making should involve participatory processes that were inclusive of all sectors, the general public, and were carried within the context of the watershed.

3.0 Frameworks for Institutional Reform

Implicit in IWRM is the recognition that water management is an inherently local undertaking. While every application would take into account hydrology and hydrogeology, demographics, socio-economics and water governance structure (Bandaragoda, 2010), this would be done relative to local conditions and interests such that what works in one situation would not necessarily work somewhere else. The open nature of IWRM principles have resulted in a wide range of what could effectively be

considered experimental application. These have produced partial successes, some failures and many lessons learned. Taken together this resulted in a depth of literature and new knowledge that refined and deepened our understanding of the mechanisms and constraints of an integrated watershed approach to water resource management. Upstream users were often found to have different interests from downstream users (Nelson & Weschler, 1998), with scale becoming another important factor. Watersheds provide ecological goods and services at scales ranging from the very local, such as spiritual and cultural value associated with a specific place, to the entire watershed, for instance integrated hydroelectric development of the Ottawa River. This has implications for identification of interested stakeholders and appropriate level of institutional intervention (Hein et al, 2006). Allocation of water towards one purpose often results in less being available elsewhere, thereby creating a situation where decision makers are constantly required to weight interests against one another. The manner and processes through which tradeoffs are informed are exceedingly complex, involving stakeholders from all sectors and the general public, a range of consultation techniques, modelling approaches and numerous frameworks (Farber et al 2002; de Groot et al, 2002). From an ecological perspective it is essential to respect critical thresholds and the ongoing delivery of supporting services and primary ecological functions. For many IWRM was seen as a surrogate for ecosystem management, and should incorporate ecosystem approaches (Bandaragoda, 2010).

3.1 Institutional Factors

Managing water in an integrated manner using watersheds as an operational unit places new demands on existing institutions. Coordinated decision making requires that information be shared horizontally between different departments and decision making groups, as well as vertically between levels of government. Furthermore, since watershed boundaries generally do not coincide with political boundaries, there will be multiple governments at the same level within a given watershed. For example line departments from the provincial governments of Quebec and Ontario share decision making within the Ottawa River watershed. At the municipal level the governments of Ottawa, Gatineau and

many other communities make decisions that affect water resources in the basin. Coordinating management will require governments to develop processes to integrate existing planning processes within and between neighbouring jurisdictions and levels of government (Pollution Probe, 2006). Additional adjustments are required to make decision making accessible to interested and relevant stakeholders. This amounts to a substantial shift in institutional operations, and raises a number of issues.

Chief among these are institutional readiness. From a review of the literature on interjurisdictional and intersectoral cooperation Nelson & Weschler (1998) developed the following list of four indicators that may provide a measure of institutional readiness: 1. level of citizen and community interest and involvement 2. degree to which existing institutions are available for regional governance 3. degree of informal or formal practical collaborative experience 4. knowledge of missions, goals and objectives of other organisations and partners To facilitate a comparison of institutional arrangements between river basins Blomquist et al (2005) began by characterising successful river basin management as being predicated by the devolution of authority to basin level and sub-basin level organisations; the degree to which stakeholders become involved and stay engaged; an enabling legal framework; and a level of economic resources. They suggest these conditions may be measured using a framework built around these four variables, which appear to be generally consistent with and complimentary to the findings of Nelson & Weschler (1998) First there are contextual factors. These include socio-cultural and economic factors that affect the incentive of basin stakeholders to participate, as well as the experience and capacity of local institutions to engage with the process. Secondly, the characteristics of the decentralisation process matter. For instance if the process was driven from the top-down and imposed on basin stakeholders, or if it is borne of mutual interest. Integrated management processes should take into account existing and familiar governance institutions at the basin level, for instance working with First Nations governance processes and leadership, and there should be ongoing support from higher levels of government to allow changes time to take effect. The final two key variables are the nature of relationships between government and basin-level organisations, and among

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basin-level organisations. Relevant factors include issues such as the actual (genuine) extent of decentralisation, financial resources and autonomy, capacity to create and modify institutional arrangements, nature of water rights, opportunities for information sharing and communication, as well as the ability to adapt to change.

Adapting to change is of central importance to water and watershed management, particularly given the predicted effects of climate change. Increases in temperature will affect water quality parameters as well evapotranspiration. These factors coupled with a predicted increase in frequency and intensity of rainfall events, as well as frequency and severity of drought events (Mortsch et al, 2000), create a situation where management systems will increasingly need to be more flexible and responsive.

3.2 Cooperation, Collaboration and Adaptive Management

The assumption has been that coordination alone could achieve the objectives of integrated watershed-based resource management without any fundamental reforms of institutional arrangements. However following a review of the literature, Watson (2010) found that aspirations have fallen short of operational achievements. Coordination of multiple existing agencies requires the development of new procedures and new rules to organise the necessary resources and ensure that activities proceed in an agreed upon manner. This implies a rule-based structure which will inherently be somewhat rigid.

The traditional view that watersheds are fairly stable, quasi-closed ecological systems is at best a convenient approximation of reality. It is more factual to understand watersheds as complex, non-linear, even chaotic socio-environmental systems that give rise to wicked or messy management problems characterised by complexity, change, uncertainty and conflict (Watson, 2010). In this context coordination that results in rigid, rule-based systems would seem incongruent with problems that demand flexible and dynamic response mechanisms. Adaptive management is increasingly seen as offering a more dynamic approach. Flexible, experimental and self-organising, the adaptive

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management approach is both a tool to manage socio-economic environmental watershed systems as well as to learn from it (Engle et al, 2011).

However the adaptive management approach relies on adaptive capacity and this is not something that is easily measured in an accurate way. Alongside general categories such as economic resources, technology and infrastructure, we know institutional and governance aspects are key, but it is only possible to measure the effectiveness or level of adaptive capacity relative to performance during a crisis. In a recent study exploring the relationship between governance and adaptive capacity in Brazil Engle et al (2010) developed an index consisting of nine indicators to help assess a priori the level of governance and institutional adaptive capacity.

Brazil recently implemented a decentralised water management system where watersheds were taken as the operational unit and stakeholder-driven basin councils were created. Where adaptive capacity may be measured as the ability of system to respond effectively to unforeseen shocks, Engle et al (2010) theorised that adaptive capacity increased with representativeness of basin organisations; participation; use of scientific knowledge and information; equality and access to decision making and to technical knowledge; commitment; networks and connectivity between groups and stakeholders; experience; and financial and human capital. They found that higher levels of representation and participation contributed to a flexible and dynamic water management structure typical of adaptive management and were able to produce more effective responses to floods and droughts. Conversely in another study location low levels of participation and reliance on heavy infrastructure combined with a more centralised management approach were found to result in a more rigid governance system that was less able to adapt to climate variability. Overall the authors concluded that there were some correlations between their indicators and demonstrated levels of adaptive capacity however finer calibration was needed.

Watson (2010) points to a growing literature that argues success may rest with the development of collaborative capital. Collaboration, as a process, is distinct from

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coordination in that it involves an actual pooling of efforts and resources by two or more stakeholders rather than an often imperfect alignment of otherwise independent and individual efforts. This implies a sharing of power, a key challenge for collaborative processes. The authors suggest the collaboration process is defined by four stages: problem definition, direction setting, structuring and outcomes. Beginning with problem setting, collaboration in this stage helps with bringing the disparate knowledge and perspectives of participating organisations together into a common understanding. It can also help forge connections between stakeholders. With the problem definition in place the next step is to decide upon some course(s) of action. Joint direction setting while challenged by differences in perspective, values and aspirations, can enhance legitimacy of defined goals. Structuring refers to the process of organising collective resources into procedures and arrangements designed to enable collective action. Finally the results of these actions need to be measured with results feeding back into problem definition, strengthening a renewed and iterative process of collaboration.

Watson (2010) suggests that while in practice collaboration will be difficult and is not a stand alone approach, it provides the basis for a dynamic, ongoing and interactive approach to IWRM. Success will depend on the design of institutional arrangements and the capacity for participating organisations to reach consensus among diverse groups with different values and objectives. The design of these institutional arrangements may benefit from and be informed by the nine indicators proposed by Engle et al (2010). Both of these studies suggest that though an adaptive management approach offers certain benefits there are limitations. Perhaps in light of this there is increasing interest in blended approaches that seek to combine aspects of IWRM and adaptive management into more effective arrangements.

In striking this balance it is important to understand the relationships between technoscientific knowledge and how this relates to participation, democracy, deliberation, diversity and adaptability. Engle et al (2011) suggest that both IWRM and adaptive management have been informed by the literature on common pool resources management, participatory decentralisation and resilience theory looking to: increase

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effectiveness through integration; add legitimacy through stakeholder participation; incorporate technical expertise through including range of knowledge and social learning; and in the case of adaptive management, become more flexible through experimentation. While blended frameworks emphasise stakeholder participation and sector integration to reduce uncertainty, assumptions that mechanisms such as decentralisation, participation, social learning and integration, compliment each other need to be tested for possible negative interactions. The authors suggest that there may be a number of tensions implicit within blended approaches. For instance the efficiency of IWRM mechanisms that function through existing institutions may operate at over a different time-frame than the more discursive social learning approaches associated with adaptive management. This aligns with findings from the earlier study into the effectiveness of an adaptive capacity index, which found that higher levels of representativeness of organisations and participation in system structures may exhibit trade-offs with equality of decision making and knowledge availability (Engle et al, 2010). Overall, while adaptive approaches show promise, reconciling them with previous and current management systems presents certain challenges. For example the legacy of institutional development and institutional path dependency may affect the degree to which systems are available to adaptive processes (Nelson & Weschler, 1998; Engle et al 2011).

3.3 Participation and the Public

The importance of public involvement must be stressed. Important knowledge and information that can be instrumental in the identification and definition of problems often lies beyond the reach of managers and scientists. Meaningful inclusion can bring this information to decision making, potentially allowing for more accurate and sophisticated policy responses (Watson, 2010).

Further challenging management of these complex systems are broader changes in governance, public administration and citizen preferences that have been slowly developing through the later half of the twentieth century. The program-driven Keynesian welfare state that dug deep into public coffers in order to maintain a level of societal

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stability through good times and bad has gradually fallen out of favour. Deficit financing has become the exception not the norm. Governments are required to be leaner (Pal, 2010). At the same time falling levels of public trust in government have resulted in an increased interest and expectation that policy development be transparent, consultative and accountable (Pal, 2008). It has also resulted in a corresponding growth in demand for citizen engagement and participation in governance (Bourgon, 2007). Overall this can be characterised as a trend away from government toward governance, where agencies are increasingly focussed on creating the conditions and facilitating action (steering), and progressively less involved with driving policy development and implementation (rowing) (Watson, 2010).

Drawing on the work of Rawls (1971), and his assertions of the importance of public deliberation and access to the political agenda, Cohen (1997) suggests that democracy, when properly conducted, involves public deliberation focussed on the common good, requires some form of manifest equality among citizens, and shapes the identity and interests of citizens in ways that contribute to the formation of a public conception of common good. It is through these means, he argues, that members of a pluralist democratic society will come to understand themselves and their own legitimate interests. In other words participation in process gives rise to the legitimacy of its outcomes. This is echoed by Fisher et al (2008) who found that community participation in the valuation of ecosystem goods and services led to greater ownership of subsequent decision making.

So we see that new approaches, such as adaptive management, that draw on resources outside government both meet public expectation and may offer more efficient forms of governance. Moreover higher levels of public involvement can results in more legitimate outcomes, which in turn can result more compliance requiring less enforcement.

4.0 Analysis
Existing infrastructure provides a range of benefits however there is general acknowledgement of a need to reduce negative impacts. Restorative steps may include

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increasing minimum flows, the installation or improvement of fish ladders and periodic release of large amounts of water to simulate storm events (Bednarek & Hart, 2005). However the discussion thus far has highlighted the importance and complexities of institutional dimensions.

4.1 Case Studies

Turning to the literature there are a number of case studies that employ various aspects and combinations of approaches that have been discussed so far. For example, in Australia, a series of extensive water management reforms were implemented to promote ecologically sustainable development, achieve environmental improvements in water systems, clarify users water rights, achieve efficient use and allocation, and an equitable distribution of costs. The integration of responsibilities between water management and other natural resources management organisations eventually led to creation of Catchment Management Authorities (CMA), beginning in 2004. These organisations, consisting of state and local government representatives, farmers, scientists, conservationists and indigenous peoples, were charged with developing Catchment Action Plans. To support the activities of CMAs in meeting their responsibilities they are allocated a total of $406M (Myiak et al, 2004). In New South Wales high nutrient levels were causing eutrophication issues in the Ben Chifley Dam reservoir. An integrated assessment and modelling approach was developed to assist managers identify actions to reduce nutrient inputs from catchment lands. Acknowledging that stakeholder participation can result in better informed decision making, more public ownership and more open, integrated and democratic decision making processes, project researchers incorporated stakeholder participation throughout the model development process (Newham et al, 2010). With stakeholder activities ranging from consultation to active contribution in policy development the stakeholders consulted included, the Department of Environment and Conservation, Department for Infrastructure Planning and Nature Resource, and representatives of Central West Catchment Management Committee, the Oberon and Evans Shire Councils, and Bathurst City Council. All of these organisational stakeholders were already represented on the Ben Chifley Steering Committee, a

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community institution in charge of catchment management (Myiak et al,2004). Landholders were also and consulted regarding their views and reactions, i.e. at a lower level of engagement than organisational participants (Newham et al, 2010)

Benefits resulting from the participatory activities were found to include, identification and action on stakeholder issues, improved information flow between researchers and stakeholders, increased collaboration between local management agencies. Factors for successful participatory activities included early integration of stakeholder interests, a range of different participatory approaches and tailored activities, and support of local management organisations. The process incorporates aspects of collaborative processes in that stakeholders were pooling resources to collectively solve a problem (Watson, 2010), in this case the design integrated modelling software. However participation was found to be resource intensive and resource constrained. In addition there was little representation from non-institutional stakeholders.

In 1991 as part of the Reservoir Releases Improvement Program the Tennessee Valley Authority was mandated to adjust minimum flows and improve water quality parameters. Water depths and velocities were found to be at extremely low levels during periods of non-generation, affecting levels of dissolved oxygen in tailwaters (Bednarek & Hart, 2005). A wholly owned US Government Corporation and the nations largest public power system, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is tasked with managing the Tennessee River system for the purposes of navigation, flood control, power generation, water quality, land conservation, recreation and economic development, while preserving natural assets (TVA, 2000). Under Objective 1.2, Retain Customers and Grow Stakeholder Support, of the TVA Strategic Plan 2000-2005 (2000), stakeholder relations and communications are to be measured using a Stakeholder Process Satisfaction Index. The benefits of stakeholder communications and relations were given as improved anticipation of issues, effective internal and external communications, and stakeholder understanding of the issues. Specific approaches to engaging stakeholders were not given. From examination of 2002, 2004, 2008 and 2010 Annual Performance Plans, stakeholder relations do not present themselves as a strong priority of TVA. In 2002 the

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Stakeholder Satisfaction Index was identified as a new indicator that would be developed by 2003. The 2004 report offered the same assurances. By 2008 the index had disappeared from the Annual Performance Plan however text referring to the benefits of stakeholder relations continued to be found in the 2010 report.

Nevertheless, while the flow regime remained highly modified following operational changes implemented under the Reservoir Releases Improvement Program,

improvements in ecological integrity were observed. It was further hypothesised that increasingly natural flows could lead to even larger ecological improvements. Given the complexities of river ecosystems experiencing multiple impairments arising from multiple stressors, expert analysis is required. Bednarek & Hart (2005) recommend strategies that employ experimental approaches to the improvement of dam operations, suggesting that informed predictions of ecosystem response should in part guide operational adjustments within an adaptive management framework that can incorporate lessons learned into evolved approaches. It may be asked whether operational adjustments implemented by TVA have been as effective on in terms of societal indicators, how associated goals would have been identified, and how TVA could demonstrate this given the apparent low level of commitment to stakeholder engagement.

Through application of their theoretical framework and subsequent analysis, Blomquist et al (2005) found that the Fraser Basin Council (FBC), a non-governmental basin management organisation in British Columbia, works across jurisdictional and constitutional boundaries bringing together federal and provincial governments, and has successfully integrated these along with First Nations governments and the interests of private stakeholders. FBC enables information sharing and maintains a reputation for objectivity, likely contributing to the development of a diverse financial base. A key success factor has been the promotion of interdependency among stakeholders however its reliance on consensus occasionally slows down decision making. Watson (2010) highlights their CARIBOO partnership model as demonstrating a successful approach to collaboration. The CARIBOO model consists of a Common Vision that articulates longterm management goals, major challenges and principles to guide action. Adaptive

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Capacity arises from overlap and non-hierarchical structure that allow for discretion and adaptability at the regional level while enabling integration of the four orders of government (Federal, provincial, municipal, First Nations). In addition, annual meetings provide opportunities for information exchange and social learning through exposure to different ideas and perspectives. Resources are brought together through shared funding arrangements. As a third-party facilitator FBC has Independence from government control, adding to its reputation for objectivity, but maintains a connection to decision making through continued government involvement. It Balances representation and power through a consensus based approach, such that minority interests cannot be outvoted by more powerful coalitions. Finally Outputs and Outcomes are monitored so that progress can be assessed. The experiences in the Fraser Basin present an interesting case study and approach to blending the participation and institutional integration of IWRM with adaptive management and collaborative type approaches.

4.2 Analysis of the Ottawa River Watershed

Over the course of the last two centuries there has been a long history of industrial activity on the Ottawa River. This prompted legislative responses focussed on issues connected to industrial activity. While there were early insights into the broader ecological ramifications of these activities legislation was typically in the spirit of ensuring activities continue, but within certain limits. As such existing legislation is limited in scope. In the case of An Agreement Respecting Ottawa River Regulation, flood protection is a primary focus. The Agreement also specifies that the goals of integrated management are to maintain the interests of various users, particularly hydroelectric energy production. Other users are not identified explicitly and both Hydro Quebec and Ontario Hydro are members of the Board and the Regulating Committee specified by the Agreement. The pattern of preference is consistent and clear suggesting that there will be a certain amount of institutional path dependency to overcome if broader goals are to be addressed in a meaningful way.

As early as 1910 the interprovincial nature of the Ottawa River watershed was identified as constituting an additional challenge, when T. Aird Murray argued for national level 19

action citing that provincial authorities were unable to safeguard the transboundary resources of the basin (Benidickson, 2010). In characterising the conditions in the basin as being the aggregated result of a series of uncoordinated actions, Harvey (1979) questioned whether the basin would have developed in the same way had the river not been subject to management actions (or inactions) of two different provinces. Indeed these concerns speak to the challenge for basin agencies to know and understand the mandate of other agencies, which may in fact reside within another government, with different political interests and concerns. When these are higher level governments with larger mandates and associated influence over conditions in the basin, this is a key issue. Better knowledge here can be seen as a building block for improved institutional integration and better outcomes.

Referring to Watsons (1998) conditions of institutional readiness, the Agreement does not suggest that participating institutions are necessarily in a state of readiness. There are no provisions for community involvement, nor is there any specific information given concerning the broader goals and interests affected by water resources management in the basin. Nonetheless the Agreement has had its successes. It effectively enables coordinated operation of multiple hydroelectric installations along the Ottawa, supplying flood control while maximising the efficient production of electricity. Agencies and organisations involved in this undertaking have developed a depth of experience and presumably have honed the institutional mechanisms needed to ensure smooth and responsive processes. These contribute to the overall institutional readiness for broader integration of management efforts along the Ottawa however there is room to expand their ranks.

As was the case in Tennessee, improvements in ecological integrity could be achieved through existing institutional arrangements with some adjustment to scheduled releases. The installation of improved fish ladders could help address concerns over access and the migration of certain species. These actions would constitute an improvement and are more readily available through the existing arrangement. However we know from the findings of Engle et al in Brazil (2010) that low levels of participation combined with a

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reliance on heavy infrastructure equate to a more rigid system that is less able to adapt. Looking beyond improved ecological integrity as an endpoint we find deeper questions that force us to challenge our assumptions. What are the broader objectives of sustainable water resources management? There may be outstanding issues regarding social impacts associated with the flooding of traditional landscapes of First Nations people, or perhaps impacts to shoreline dwellers due to operational protocols and temporal variations in water levels, however it becomes difficult to identify specific issues in quantifiable terms. This is the crux of the problem. Improved management requires a philosophical shift from managing known issues to managing in such a way as to be prepared to adapt to currently unidentifiable issues. A central part of this will be ensuring mechanisms are in place to identify issues as they begin develop, while also ensuring the overall institutional arrangement has the capacity to respond to these issues.

The literature on IWRM and adaptive management suggest that it would be both meaningful and appropriate to explore opportunities for public involvement in this regard. This is underscored by broader shifts in governance requiring governments to be lean as well as responsive and open. The potential benefits here are better, more informed and more legitimate decision making. This in turn may result in higher levels of ownership and compliance, and improved overall outcomes. In the context of smaller governments opportunities to bolster voluntary compliance are particularly valuable when it comes to managing non-point sources pollution and other distributed behaviourbased concerns. The absence of mechanisms to involve the public and incorporate community knowledge and preferences in decision making reveals an institutional arrangement that is not well positioned to identify and manage the broader range of issues that could arise within the Ottawa River Basin, and as a result of their decision making. As such The Ottawa River Regulation Planning Board is not currently empowered by the terms of the Agreement to meet its mandate and maintain the interests of the variety of water users present in the basin. Based on a current understanding of the need for an integrated and decentralised approach that is dynamic and responsive in the face of uncertainty, the Agreement appears ready for renewal.

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4.3 Recommendations
Historical factors and the current state of governance in the basin suggest that fully modernising the operation and governance of hydroelectric infrastructure in such a way as to respect and contribute to the broader array of interests implicit in sustainable water resource management, will require a substantial amount of transition. Given that there is no history of participation a stepped approach is recommended. This should begin with the identification and engagement of appropriate stakeholders. These include numerous non-governmental organisations such as Conservation Authorities; basin authorities in Quebec mandated under the Quebec Water Act; the Ottawa Riverkeeper; and experts from local universities. These organisations have information, expertise, resources and invaluable connections to the community. It would be beneficial to seek ways to develop and tap into this policy network.

While public participation may bring a range of benefits, it must be meaningful to be sustainable. This requires higher levels of engagement as early on in the decision making process as possible, such as at the problem definition and direction setting stages, and will benefit from institutional readiness to incorporate the knowledge and preferences of the broader stakeholder community into decision making. If participation is seen to be impactful this will encourage further participation. In addition communication and engagement processes must be adequately resourced. This will be supported by the inclusion of other government and non-governmental stakeholders.

Building adaptive capacity has been shown to be an inherently experimental process, implying a degree of iteration. Accordingly at this point it is inappropriate to detail a final solution however it is possible to identify strategic next steps.

1. An institutional atlas should be developed in order to identify relevant stakeholders and inform them about one anothers goals and mandate. 2. The broader stakeholder community should embark on a collective visioning process. This could help refine the institutional atlas, possibly identifying

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additional interests and stakeholders. However the main purpose would be to develop collaborative capital and a shared sense of direction from the outset. 3. Decision making should be devolved to the basin level in a meaningful manner. This includes the provision of adequate funding to support new institutional arrangement in the early stages. 4. New arrangements should be brought together in a structured way that ensures outputs and outcomes are measured and made available to stakeholders

In terms of specific adjustments to the Ottawa River Regulation Board and An Agreement Respecting Ottawa River Regulation, these will flow in large part from the collective vision process and related activities. However it is expected that these will encompass a statement regarding the broader interests vested in decision making concerning levels and flows in the Ottawa River; the value of collaboration in support of the development of adaptive capacity; and details regarding new governance arrangements that emerge from the collective visioning process.

The interprovincial nature of the Ottawa River Basin presents an interesting and somewhat uncommon governance challenge. It would be interesting to look more closely at relevant institutions and assess how approaches to coordination and collaboration here compare and contrast to approaches taken elsewhere in similar situations where multiple higher level governments share management of a river that also acts as a political boundary. This could involve further testing of the nine-point framework put forward by Engle et al (2010). In addition it could be informative to investigate similar scenarios in other country settings to observe alternative approaches and best practices.

5.0 Conclusions
Based on a historical investigation of development and governance in the Ottawa River basin, and the current theory related to IWRM, we can conclude that governance in the basin is defined by complex interconnecting issues, and that these issues and related priorities are subject to change. This signals a need to redress current governance

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approaches and develop more adaptive capacity. This will have a direct bearing on the sustainability of water resources management in the basin. Current institutional arrangements have been effective in their mandated role, and provide as good base of experience in interjurisdictional cooperation on which to build. However it is time to draw on the broader resources available within the basin and adopt a more collaborative model in order to build the adaptive capacity needed to safeguard against unforeseen future events while meeting a broader range of social, environmental and economic interests.

Word count: 7246

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