Catastrophic outburst floods due to glacier dam and moraine dam breaching in the Canadian Cordillera

James Adamson University of Northern British Columbia, Geography Program

Abstract: Catastrophic outburst flood waves resulting from glacier and morainedam breaching produce downstream flooding, scour, deposition and debris flows that provide hazards to humans and the economy. A comprehensive understanding of drainage triggering mechanisms, dam stability phases, and peak discharge modeling techniques are essential for evaluating anthropogenic and economic impacts of potential flood events. With an essential understanding of possible socioeconomic impacts, practical measures can be taken to prevent damage.

Introduction Catastrophic drainage of both glacier-dammed and moraine-dammed lakes is a significant topic of Quaternary studies for a number of reasons. Catastrophic outburst floods resulting from glacier and moraine dam breaching have many geomorphic and hydrologic impacts, including flooding, scour, deposition, and debris flows. As a result, these catastrophic outburst floods have become a concern for human life and a developing economy. The anthropogenic hazards associated with outburst floods have influenced studies to help predict and prevent damage that these events can produce. A comprehensive understanding of lake dam stability, possible drainage triggering mechanisms, hydrologic and geomorphic effects, and means to estimate peak discharge are essential for studying outburst floods. If these lakes threaten lives or the economy, mitigation tactics can be applied to reduce or eliminate potential risks.

Glacier dammed lakes and moraine dammed lakes are mountain features in British Columbia that are capable of producing outburst floods. Glacial outburst floods are defined as the catastrophic drainage of a glacier-dammed lake and will be referred to as jkulhlaups in this paper (Costa 1988). When a glacier advances, the glacier can form a dam that inhibits or blocks local drainage patterns. The water bodies created as a result of damming can occur within, on, or adjacent to the glacier (Tweed and Russel 1999). Moraine-dammed catastrophic outburst floods are similar, however the dam is created from debris accumulated as a result of glacial advance, not the ice itself. In the Canadian Cordillera, both moraine-dammed and glacier-dammed lakes are commonly the product of Little Ice Age glacial advances and some of these lakes have recently become susceptible to catastrophic drainage due to glacial retreat.

Outburst floods are common in glaciated regions of the world. The frequency and magnitude of these events have been much lower in the present day then during the Pleistocene and Holocene glacial periods. During the Late Wisconsin glaciation, Glacial Lake Missoula drained catastrophically through Washington state up to forty times releasing volumes of water comparable to Lake Ontario (Bretz 1926; Baker 1973). Clarke (1985) attributed this catastrophic flooding to be one of the geologic wonders of the world, documenting that Baker (1973) calculated its discharge to be 20 times the instantaneous discharge of all the worlds rivers. The tremendous amount of water released into Hudson Bay during the outburst of Glacial Lakes Agassiz and Ojibway during Laurentide Ice Retreat (8200 cal yr BP) influenced cooling periods in the Northern Hemisphere (Tweed and Russel 1999; Barber et al. 1999).

Paleo-reconstruction of catastrophic drainage events that occurred prior to the Little Ice age is difficult due to the re-working, burial and erosion of sediments. As a result, current knowledge of catastrophic outburst floods have come from studies on currently active and recently active lake drainage to interpret similar processes and patterns between different events. However, recent research by Blais-Stevens et al. (2003) describes possible paleo-flood reconstruction from sea sediments in the Saanich Inlet, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Glacial outburst floods are more common than moraine dam floods, therefore, more work has been completed on them. The study of jkulhlaups requires an immense understanding of glaciology, hydrology and thermal dynamics.

Our understanding of jkulhlaups in British Columbia was pioneered by Mathews (1964), who took advantage of mining activities to pursue breakthrough glacio-hydrology studies at Summit Lake, British Columbia (Clarke 1985). Later work by Clarke (1985) evaluated the dynamics of currently active glacier dammed lakes to provide relationships to model large catastrophic paleo-floods such as Lake Missoula and Lake Agassiz. Additionally, Clague and Mathews (1973), Nye (1976), Walder and Costa (1996), and Clarke (1985) have further pursued modeling current glacial lake drainage to predict discharge and potential hazards. More recent work in British Columbia has focused on the catastrophic failure of moraine dams (Clague and Evans 2000; Kershaw 2002) and modeling their peak discharges (Walder and Costa 1996; Clague and Evans 2000).

II. Three Phases of Lake Stability Three phases are commonly associated with the drainage of glacier and moraine-dammed lakes. These phases are related to mountain glacier changes resulting from climate change. A stable or pre jokulhlaup phase describes a period where catastrophic drainage does not occur. This phase characterizes that the ice dam or moraine dam is strong enough to support the water that it withholds (Clague and Evans 1997). The second stage occurs when a threshold is reached and the lake undergoes event(s) of catastrophic drainage; this stage is often called the active or jkulhlaup phase (Tweed and Russel 1999). Lastly, the final phase indicates the lakes extinction or creation of a stable hydrologic barrier that prevents outburst floods from occurring (Clague and Evans 1997). Bedrock sills are common hydrologic barriers for glacier lakes in British Columbia. For example, at Ape Lake in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, a bedrock sill prevents drainage to the south, which allows the lake to form that is dammed by the Fyles glacier to the north (Gilbert and Desloges 1987). Additionally, during the catastrophic drainage of Klattasine Lake, a bedrock sill was exposed underneath the eroding moraine dam, which halted the lake drainage (Clague and Evans 2000; Clague et al. 1985). Both jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed lake floods follow a similar three-phase trend, and active jkulhlaup phases have become more common within the past 100 years in British Columbia. Many studies of jkulhlaups in British Columbia, Washington State and Yukon Territory have indicated that these flood events occur commonly proceeding a first event, before which these floods did not occur (Walder and Driedger 1994;

Mathews and Clague 1992; Clarke 1982). A perfect example of this occurs at Summit Lake, a highly studied jkulhlaup site that is proximal to Stewart, British Columbia and Hyder, Alaska. Flood waves resulting from Summit Lake drainage events are easily noticed in rivers near Hyder and Stewart and have not been historically documented prior to 1961. Since 1961, dozens of major catastrophic drainage events have occurred (Mathews and Clague 1992). The spatial and temporal phenomenon of dammed lakes becoming unstable can be attributed to the ending of the long-lived stable phase of the lake dams following glacial retreat from the Little Ice Age. Glacier dams have become thinner and more vulnerable to hydrologic fluctuations and drainage triggering mechanisms. Similarly, moraine dams have lost support of glacial ice due to retreat and are more susceptible to erosion, which decreases their strength (Clague and Evans 2000).

III. Drainage triggering mechanisms Jkulhlaups and moraine dam outburst floods are triggered by different mechanisms and will be addressed separately in this section. All of these mechanisms are theoretical and difficult to study due to the low frequency and remoteness of outburst flooding events. Clague and Evans (2000) provide a summary of potential drainage triggering mechanism of moraine dammed lakes and Tweed and Russel (1999) detail a summary on drainage triggering mechanisms of glacier dammed lakes.

IIIa. Drainage triggering mechanisms in glacier-dammed lakes Tweed and Russel (1999) explore many mechanisms by which glacier dammed lakes catastrophically flood, however, this paper only derives mechanisms that are specific to

Holocene activity in British Columbia. Floatation, subglacial lake cavity formation, siphoning, the Glen mechanism are the most sited causes of jokuhlhaups in the Canadian Cordillera (Clarke 1982, Clague and Evans 1997; Clague and Evans 1994; Walder and Costa 1996). The flotation mechanism is the most commonly cited initiation mechanism of jokulhlaups. More technically, the process occurs when lake water levels reach approximately 90% of the ice dam height, which forces the ice dam to float, releasing water beneath (Clague and Evans 1994). Clague and Evans (1994) have disputed this triggering mechanism noting that many ice-dammed lakes are much smaller than the glaciers that impound them, and ice flotation of any significance is unlikely. However, Mathews (1964) suggested that pore pressure within glaciers can be significant and glacial surging and movement can result (Mathews 1964). A glacial surge 9.5 km long in the Yukon created a glacier dammed lake that is currently producing annual jkulhlaups (Clarke 1985). It is possible that the flotation process induced by the lake itself combined with the pore pressure within the damming glacier could enable surges of flotation, and initiate enough kinetic energy to create a jokulhlaup. Subglacial cavity formation feeds off the pore-pressure mechanism, where during periods of glacial surge, large drainage systems can become connected, influencing more thermal energy and an exponential rise in discharge (Tweed and Russel 1999). Siphoning is another mechanism and is based upon the principles of hydraulic gradients. It theoretically occurs when the water pressure of the ice dammed lake exceeds the pressure within the glacier and water is forced or sucked out of the lake into the glacier (Tweed and Russel 1999). Siphoning can attribute to increasing pore pressure within the glacier, which could initiate glacial surging and drainage cavity expansion. This mechanism of siphoning appears to only

occur for brief periods of time until the pressure balance is equalized again. Lastly, the Glen mechanism occurs when the hydrostatic head of water within a lake system exceeds the ice pressure and plastic deformation of the ice can lead to the creation of a subglacial cavities that can drain the lake (Tweed and Russel 1999). The Glen mechanism directly relates to deep glacial lakes, which can produce significant head gradients. The initiation processes of most jokulhlaups are not known, however, the potential concepts are well understood which provide us with hypothesis for initiation mechanisms.

IIIb. Drainage triggering mechanisms of moraine-dammed lakes Drainage triggering mechanisms of moraine-dammed lakes are better understood than glacier-dammed lakes, primarily because the dynamic processes of glaciers do not have to be understood. However, pinpointing the individual triggering mechanisms of each lake drainage is still difficult. The drainage triggering mechanism is known with certainty in only two of nine documented moraine dam failures is the Canadian Cordillera (Clague and Evans 2000). It is also important to understand that the following nonglacial triggering mechanisms can also be justifiable for contributing to the failure of glacier dams as well.

Mass movement events such as ice, rock and earth avalanches that enter a lake may be responsible for initiating large waves that can overtop a moraine dam and initiate catastrophic incision of the dam (Clague and Evans 2000). These events are probably responsible for a majority of the failures in British Columbia and the world. Ice

avalanches have been the cause of two moraine dam failures in British Columbia (Clague and Evans 2000, Kershaw et al. 2002). For example, the moraine dams of both Nostetuko and Queen Bess Lakes in the Coast mountains failed because they were overtopped by waves initiated by an ice avalanche (Clague and Evans 2000).

Figure 1: 1977 and 1983 photographs illustrating before and after of the moraine dam failure at Nostetuko lake, breaching was initiated from an ice avalanche. (From Costa 1988).

Meteorological conditions such as periods of rapid glacier retreat, rapid snowmelt or heavy rainfall can contribute to moraine dam failures (Clague and Evans 2000). Piping within the moraine dam can contribute to dam failure because the nature of piping can weaken moraines and make them more susceptible to failure (Clague and Evans 2000). Ice cores within the moraine can melt and reduce the strength of the dam as well; this mechanism is especially important during periods of warming (Ostrem and Arnold 1970; Clague and Evans 2000). Lastly, as mentioned by Clague and Evans (2000) and Costa and Schuster (1988) earthquakes may trigger dam failure directly from seismic activity or by initiating mass movement.

IV. Hydraulic and hydrologic nature of catastrophic outburst floods Catastrophic flood waves are several orders of magnitude higher than annual and seasonal flooding events, and much more distinguishable because of this. The shape of a catastrophic outburst flood hydrograph and the nature of flooding is dependent on a number of variables, of which the most significant ones are addressed here:

1. 2. 3.

Dam Morphology Glacier vs. Moraine dams Lake Characteristics Downstream Topography

Dam morphology must first be divided between moraine dams and glacier dams because this variable significantly influences the nature of flood waves, the flood magnitude and frequency. Moraine dams are generally made up of non-cohesive material consisting of matrix supported rock debris. Additionally, moraine dams have a short width in comparison with glacier dams. As a result, once dam breaching is initiated the lake drains rapidly creating a flood wave. Clague and Evans (2000) summarize that a moraine dam flood with the same potential energy as a glacier-dammed flood will produce a much larger flood wave. However, in most cases a breached moraine dam will only produce one catastrophic flooding event because the dam is permanently destroyed and the reservoir empties. Perhaps only glacial advance or mass movement could create another dam. This observation has exceptions, during catastrophic drainage of Tats Lake in the Coast Mountains the breached moraine caved in upon itself depositing larger debris which stopped the lake drainage (Clague and Evans 2000).

Glacier dams are more complex barriers than moraine dams. Draining of glacierdammed lakes occurs when a threshold is reached and the lake begins to drain slowly which initiates melting of the ice dam by conductive heat transfer and frictional heating (Nye 1976). This process exponentially increases the discharge and the size of the drainage channels within the glacier until the water source is exploited or the drainage network collapses (Mathews and Clague 1992, Clague and Evans 1997, Tweed and Russel 1999). In most cases, the flood water has to travel the entire length of a glacier, however, it is not unknown for ice marginal drainage to occur (Walder and Costa 1996). Glacier size and morphology can play a significant role in the nature of jkulhlaups. The longer the distance water must travel through, under, or on top of a glacier increases the likelihood of outflow tunnel collapse. These tunnel collapses may create multiple flood waves during the same event or cease flow altogether. Unlike moraine dam floods, individual glacier dammed floods can last up to a few weeks due to the complex nature of the dam (Mathews and Clague 1992). Glacier outburst floods are significant because they generally undergo many flooding events during their active phase because the plastic and brittle properties of the glacier dam influence re-breaching (Mathews and Clague 1992). Proceeding jkulhlaup floods generally get progressively smaller because the dam strength decreases with time and the impounded lakes are not supported to their original volume (Clague and Evans 1997). Additionally, it is unusual for jkulhlaup events to drain the entire water source. This happened at Farrow Creek in British Columbia because the drainage tunnels did not collapse and close (Clague and Evans 1997). The lake still has not re-filled because the drainage tunnel has remained open so another jkulhlaup event cannot occur until the dam re-breaches. Based on the dam morphology

and glacier physics, glacier dammed lakes can produce a wide range of jokulhlaup events. Summit Lake, BC and Hazard Lake, Yukon produce jkulhlaups almost annually, whereas Farrow Creek has not experienced a jkulhlaup since its initial event (Mathews and Clague 1992; Clarke 1985; Clague and Evans 1997).

An interesting combination of both a moraine dam and glacier dam occurs at Ape Lake, British Columbia (Gilbert and Desloges 1987). The lake was primarily dammed by a glacier, however, during the lakes first catastrophic draining, a submerged moraine was exposed within the lake basin and acted as a secondary dam. The kinetic energy of outflowing water initiated the moraine dam failure, which produced another distinct flood wave. Jkulhlaup activity commences at Ape lake, however, now in only one wave because the moraine dam is already breached (Gilbert and Desloges 1987). Another example of two distinct flood waves occurred at Queen Bess Lake, where an ice avalanche triggered an initial overflow wave, that wave initiated the breaching of the dam and created a second, much larger flood wave (Kershaw et al. 2002).

Lake characteristics are of tremendous importance for understanding flood waves. Lake volume is the most significant variable in modeling the size of potential floods (Clarke 1985). Larger volumes of water will generally produce larger and more intense flood waves. Lake bathymetry provides a means to estimate potential energy and hydrostatic pressure, which can influence the initiation of dam breaching, deeper lakes produce stronger hydrostatic pressure and lake gradients can produce tremendous amounts of kinetic energy. Lake size and depth also influence the dissipation rates of flood waves

produced by mass movement activity. Areas susceptible to mass movement and their vector to the dam are important as well.

Downstream topography directly influences the rate of attenuation of a flood wave (Costa 1988). A steep and confined channel will influence slow rates of attenuation, increasing the effected area of the flood. On the other hand, a low gradient, unconfined channel would attenuate rather quickly and have less significant hydraulic impacts downstream (Clague and Evans 2000; Costa 1988). Clague and Evans (2000) also comment on the potential effects of hydraulic ponding, which could influence the nature of flood waves. Ponding rates would be highly influenced by the nature of downstream sediment and its related topography. Most estimates of outburst floods are calculated from hydrographs produced far from the floods initiation, therefore in order to correctly estimate catastrophic outburst flood discharges, it is extremely important to consider the variables described above.

Figure 2: Generalized hydrographs of jokulhlaups as shown in Costa (1988). Hydrograph on left is typical shape of a moraine dam hydrograph.

V. Geomorphic Processes and Catastrophic Outburst Floods Catastrophic outburst floods produce a powerful flood-wave, in which downstream morphology has not become adapted and accustomed to. As a result, geomorphic processes such as debris flows, scour, and deposition can occur at tremendous magnitudes both in the lake basin and in the downstream valleys. The quantity of water, its associated kinetic energy and hydraulic power allow for entrainment of large amounts of debris. Catastrophic outburst floods in British Columbia have been documented to effect areas up to 115 kilometers downstream from the initiation point (Clague and Evans 2000). Most literature focuses on the heavy scour and deposition processes

downstream, however, Gilbert and Desloges (1987) provide evidence of significant processes occurring within the lake basin itself.

Jkulhlaups and moraine dam floods produce very similar geomorphic impacts to the landscape, however, it is important to note that moraine dam floods have a higher initial sediment concentration due to the erosion of the moraine, this characteristic can provide a more powerful flood wave (Costa 1988). Common entrained material consists of moraine, colluvial, and sometimes lacustrine deposits associated with extinct lake basins and the draining lake itself. Colluvial fans are common sources of sediment load in both moraine dam floods and jkulhlaups (Walder and Dreidger 1994; Clague and Evans

2000, Clague and Evans 1997; Clague et al. 1985; Mathews and Clague 1992). Finegrained materials such as silts and clays are can be significant for paleo-flood reconstruction because the materials can be transported and deposited significant distances as a result of an outburst flood (Blais-Stevens et al. 2003).

Degradation and aggradation trends of outburst floods are very complex, however, the general pattern equates to heavy scour upstream and deposition downstream (Costa 1988). Clague and Evans (2000) debate this assumption with numerous cases in which deposition materials are proximal to their original source. Localized transport of sediment is apparent in many catastrophic outburst floods, for example, high sediment input from a moraine at Nostetuko Lake was followed by deposition of the same material within 100 meters (Clague and Evans 2000). In some cases sediment incision reached up to forty meters and bedrock incision up to four meters (Walder and Driedger 1994; Costa 1988). The highest rates of degradation have been reported topographically confined river channels and canyons, in which complete sediment scour has occurred. Degradation and scour are common on convex turns, where point bar deposition is common on the concave side of the drainage channel (Clague and Evans 2000). Despite localized exceptions of deposition trends, Costa (1988) reports that enormous sediment loads influence significant widening and shallowing of the downstream river channel. The geomorphic response associated with widening and shallowing results in severe braiding and a large sediment source for the future.

Large alluvial fans are common features of outburst flood activity; these are commonly seen at the base of valleys and terraces. Alluvial fans associated with outburst activity are poorly sorted and often contain angular fragments and woody debris (Costa 1988). Additionally, these deposits are commonly incised by recent hydrologic activity. Sometimes alluvial sediment can bury errant ice debris, when these ice blocks melt they leave conical depressions and possibly ponds (Clague and Mathews 1992). The results of deposition and degradation of sediment and rock allow the river to change drastically, and stabilization of the river channels to pre-flood conditions can take decades or even centuries (Clague and Evans 2000).

In a few cases, enough sediment can become entrained in a flood to create debris flows (Walder and Dreidger 1994; Clague et al. 1985). These debris flows can contribute to tremendous impacts on channel and valley morphology. On Mount Rainier, repeated debris flow events triggered by jkulhlaups have incised the bedrock channel 20 meters and have destroyed aesthetic waterfalls (Walder and Dreidger 1994). At Klattasine Creek in British Columbia, a catastrophic debris flow traveled 8 kilometers and changed drainage directions of the channel (Clague et al. 1985). The Klattasine Creek debris flow created multiple secondary debris flows and landslides by removing the support of local hillslopes. Evidence from surficial material in British Columbia suggests that debris flows initiated by catastrophic outburst floods have been up to 20 meters thick and traveled distances up to twenty kilometers (Clague and Evans 1994).

Geomorphic change in the draining lake basins themselves are intriguing, and have been noted by Gilbert and Desloges (1987). During catastrophic lake drainage, many waves are produced which effectively erode the lake basins, and as the water level lowers, the newly exposed sediment becomes eroded by the energy of the waves. Evidently, more erosion within the lake occurs during re-filling processes than during draining (Gilbert and Desloges 1987). Dry turbidity flows were noted at Ape Lake following drainage, these flows were initiated on the exposed lake bottom by pore pressure and liquefaction (Gilbert and Desloges 1987). Perhaps more erosion occurs during re-filling because the gravity component is more substantial with the absence of water, therefore, water draining into the sediments would produce tremendous erosion until the lake filled up.

VI. Anthropogenic impacts

Fortunately, due to the low population density of British Columbia, most jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed floods occur in remote areas and present little or no danger to people and the economy (Clague and Evans 2000; Mathews and Clague 1992). The unpredictable and hazardous nature of these catastrophic events has been responsible for large losses of life and severe economic damage in locations around the world. The 1941 emptying of Lake Cohup in Peru destroyed the town of Huaraz and killed more than 6000 people (Clague and Evans 2000). Other similar devastating events have occurred in the Himalayas, Europe and other areas of South America. In British Columbia, more areas are continually being opened up to forestry, mining and recreation and catastrophic drainage events may become more significant. The most economically significant jkulhlaup activity in British Columbia occurs at Summit Lake. The jkulhlaups that

occurred during the 1960s were responsible for destroying mines, subglacial mining tunnels and important roads and bridges (Clarke 1985; Mathews and Clague 1992). The protection and relocation of one section of road near Ninemile costed $500,000 (Mathews and Clague 1992). Additionally, an important bridge also near Ninemile was swept off its foundation, folded in half and carried hundreds of meters downstream (Mathews and Clague 1992). The benefit of Summit Lake drainage events is that it gave rise to an economic investment in understanding and studying glacier lake outbursts. Without the Summit Lake events, our current understanding of outburst floods would be much less (Clarke 1985). Jkulhlaups and moraine dammed floods can pose a significant threat to valuable forestry land and ecosystems. For example, if a catastrophic event occurred during a salmon run it could destroy the entire runand the effects of losing a keystone species could significantly disrupt the ecosystem. The currently unstable Flood Lake, in the Stikine River basin poses significant hazards to valuable salmon runs and recent development occurring downstream (Clarke and Waldron 1983).

VII. Prediction, prevention and mitigation Jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed lake floods have had significant economic impacts in British Columbia. As development continues in British Columbia, it is important to be able to model the peak discharges of potential catastrophic floods and delineate areas that would be effected. With this is known, preventive measures can be taken to minimize the loss of life and money. Engineering and mitigation techniques can be applied to hazardous lakes, which can reduce the risks of certain areas and safely open up areas for resource development.

VIIa. Peak Discharge Prediction of Jkulhlaups Modeling and discharge prediction of jkulhlaups have been pioneered in British Columbia by Clague and Mathews(1973), Clarke (1982),(1985) Nye (1976), Walder and Costa (1996). The essential variables that are required to estimate peak discharge are lake volume, potential energy and discharges from past floods. Potential energy is commonly calculated as the product of dam height, reservoir volume, and the specific weight of water (Clague and Evans 2000). Additionally, Walder and Costa (1996) have shown that dam breaching characteristics are important for influencing peak discharges. Clague and Mathews (1973) developed the most commonly used jkulhlaup discharge model, which states that maximum jkulhlaup discharge is dependent of the volume of water drained. Qmax = 75Vmax0.67 Clague and Mathews (1973)

Figure 3: The Clague-Mathews relationship, showing relationship between peak discharge and lake volume. (Clague and Mathews 1976).

This equation is based on a log-log relationship between peak discharge and drained lake volume of ten separate glacial outburst floods, two of which occurred in British Columbia. Although this relationship is not dependent on glacier physics, it has been used extensively and has provided reasonable results in many studies (Tweed and Russel 1999; Clarke 1982; Clarke 1985). Recent work by Walder and Costa (1996) updated the model using twenty-six ice tunnel drained jkulhlaups, this revised equation is as follows QMAX = 46(V)0.66 (R2 = 0.70) Walder and Costa (1996) where v is lake volume These relationships provide a quick and cost-effective means of predicting jkulhlaup magnitudes and their potential hazards.

Nye (1976) developed a complex relationship modeling the discharge of a single Icelandic jkulhlaup. This model is dependent on many variables, which are sometimes very difficult to distinguish making it very unpractical in some situations. In the Nye model, ice tunnel dimensions and slope must be determined, however, these are not easy to predict before a flood event occurs (Clarke 1982). The Manning roughness coefficient of the ice drainage tunnel is another very important variable that is needed in the Nye model. Clarke (1982; 1985) illustrates that the Manning coefficient is impossible to directly measure prior to a flood event. Using predictable annual jkulhlaup activity at Summit Lake of British Columbia and Hazard Lake of the Yukon Territory, Clarke (1982) found that the Manning coefficients may be relatively constant in jkulhlaup floods. Using the Nye model and a constant for the Mannings roughness coefficient, Clarke (1985) was able to model paleo-outburst floods such as glacial lake Missoula, his results were relatively consistent with previous estimates.

Both the Clague-Mathews and Nye jkulhlaup discharge models require that the flood drain through an ice tunnel. Using these models, the peak discharge of jkulhlaups that occur from ice marginal drainage or mechanical ice dam failure can be severely underestimated using the Nye (1976) and Clague- Mathews (1973) models (Walder and Costa 1996). In fact, the hydrograph of jkulhlaups that drain in these manners closely resemble breaching of earthen dams (Costa and Schuster 1988; Walder and Costa 1996). Note that this model has a much higher coefficient than the models used for ice tunnel drainage floods.

QMAX = 1200 (V)0.48 (R2 = 0.65) where v is lake volume

Walder and Costa (1996)

VIIb. Peak Discharge Prediction of Moraine Dammed Lakes Due to the difference in failure mechanisms between jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed outburst floods, the jkulhlaup models do not show correlation for predicting peak discharge of moraine-dammed outburst floods (Clague and Evans 2000). Additionally, due to the lower frequency of these floods in comparison with jkulhlaups, they are much more difficult to study. The most widely used models for predicting peak discharge from moraine dam failures were developed by Costa and Schuster (1988) and Walder and OConnor (1997). These models are dependent on either potential energy or lake volume.

Qmax = 0.0013PE 0.60 (Costa and Schuster 1988) Qmax = 0.045V0.66 (Walder and OConnor 1997)

Once again, these models are not dependent on physics, they simply provide a relationship between different moraine dammed floods. The estimated discharge of moraine-dammed floods that are used in these models are potentially underestimated because these flood waves are often measured far from the source of outburst, and flood wave attenuation is difficult to estimate (Clague and Evans 2000; Costa 1988).

Figure 4: Generalized trend of hydrograph attenuation with distance downstream. As shown in Clague and Evans (2000).

Costa and Schuster (1988), and Clague and Evans (2000) developed a conservative model for earthen dam failures, derived from human constructed earth dam failures around the world, which is dependent on potential energy associated with the reservoir. This model, likely overestimates peak-discharges from moraine-dam failures, however, with a rough means of peak discharge estimation it is better to overestimate. Qmax=0.063PE0.42.

Further studies have conditioned formulae that establish the importance of breach growth rates on influencing peak discharge (Clague and Evans 2000). Determination of potential breach growth rate is dependent on dam geometry, dam construction materials, and lake

hypsometric characteristics, and determining these variables make this model less economically practical (Clague and Evans 2000).

VIIc. Mitigation It is important to recognize that catastrophic drainage of glacier-dammed and morainedammed lakes can be prevented. The most simple mitigation mechanism is to control the water volume of the impounded reservoir. Hydraulic siphoning is a common technique that is applied in many parts of the world, and in Peru previously vulnerable towns are now termed as safe due to hydraulic siphoning measures (Clague and Evans 1997). Siphoning is extremely cost effective and simple as it uses the hydraulic head gradient to transfer water from one side of the dam to the other. Reservoir water volume can also be controlled by deepening the spillway, or effectively reducing the height of the dam (Clague and Evans 1997).

In some cases, if a dam is found to be very unstable it may be essential to drain the basin quickly by destroying the dam (Clague and Evans 1997). In remote areas, it can be beneficial to artificially drain the dam because it is known when the flood will occur and prevention of fatalities is easier to manage (Costa 1988). If the dam were allowed to breach naturally, its spontaneous nature would more likely cause fatalities. Another mechanism of reservoir drainage would be to construct a water drainage tunnel that would transport water to a safer area or valley. The construction of a water drainage tunnel is an expensive endeavor that may only apply if the impounded reservoir provides an essential economic value, such as aesthetics or a water source. In cases where the

reservoir provides economic significance, a man-made dam can be constructed to decrease the risk of dam failure. Spillways can also be constructed along the lake margins to make sure that lake volume does not exceed a critical threshold. When considering mitigation measures for a particular reservoir, it is important to consider drainage triggering mechanisms, especially earthquakes in mitigation design. A proper mitigation plan should evaluate the economic value of the lake and the hazards and variables associated with jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed lake floods. With a proper mitigation plan communities and economies will be safer and a significant amount of money and grief will be saved by preventing a catastrophic outburst flood.

VIII. Conclusion Jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed lake floods are enormous floods, which occur catastrophically in most cases. These flooding events have been increasing in number over the past hundred years, following the retreat from glacier maximums of the Little Ice Age. Outburst floods are typically much larger than seasonal flood events and provide a signature hydrograph, where discharge increases exponentially and quickly falls to baseflow levels. As this paper has shown, the specific nature of these hydrographs and estimates of peak discharges depend on many variables specific to the dam itself, land topography and lake characteristics. Jkulhlaups and moraine-dammed floods include many geomorphic processes such as intense scour, sedimentation and mass movement. As a result of the magnitude of catastrophic drainage of moraine-dammed and glacierdammed lakes in the Cordillera, they have recently become a cause of anthropogenic and geomorphic concern. Due to this concern and the devastating effects of these floods, it

has become important to model the potential peak discharges and downstream effects of possible dam failures. With the effects of potential outburst floods assessed, it may be necessary to utilize prevention and mitigation tactics to reduce or eliminate the risks that outburst floods pose. Obviously, the processes of catastrophic drainage of morainedammed and glacier-dammed lakes are not fully understood, in which future studies are required to further prevent fatalities and economic losses.

IX.

Bibliography

Barber, D.C., Dyke, A., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Jennings, A.E., Andrews, J.T., Kerwin, M.W., Bilodeau, G., McNeely, R., Southon, J., Morehead, M.D. and Gagnon, J.M. 1999. Forcing of the cold event of 8200 years ago by catastrophic drainage of Laurentide lakes. Nature, 400: 344-348. Blais-Stevens, A., Clague, J.J., Mathewes, R.W., Hebda, R.J., and Bornhold, B.D. 2003. Record of large, Late Pleistocene outburst floods preserved in Saanich Inlet sediments, Vancouver Island, Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews, In Press. Bretz, J.H. 1926. The Spokane flood beyond the channeled scablands. Journal of Geology, 33: 97-115, 236-259. Baker, V.N. 1973. Paleohydrology and sedimentology of Lake Missoula flooding in eastern Washington. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 144, 80pp. Clague, J.J., and Evans, S.G. 2000. A review of catastrophic drainage of morainedammed lakes in British Columbia. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19: 1763-1783. Clague, J.J., Evans, S.G., and Blown, I.G. 1985. A debris flow triggered by the breaching of a moraine-dammed lake, Klattasine Creek, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 22: 1492-1502.

Clague, J.J., and Mathews, W.H. 1973. The magnitude of jkulhlaups. Journal of Glaciology, 12: 501-505.

Clague, J.J., and Evans, S.G. 1994. Formation and failure of natural dams in the Canadian Cordillera. Geological Survey of Canada: Bulletin 464. Clague, J.J., and Evans, S.G. 1997. The 1994 jkulhlaup at Farrow Creek, British Columbia, Canada. Geomorphology. 19: 77-87. Clarke, G.K.C. 1982. Glacier outburst floods from Hazard Lake, Yukon Territory, and the problem of flood magnitude prediction, Journal of Glaciology. 28: 3-21. Clarke, G.K.C. 1985. Professor Mathews, outburst floods and other glaciological disasters. Canadian Journal of Earth Science, 23: 859-868. Costa, J.E. 1988. Floods from dam failures. In Flood Geomorphology. Baker V.R., Kochel, R.C., and Patton P.C. (Eds.). Wiley and Sons, Toronto: 439-463. Gilbert, R., and Desloges, J.R. 1987. Sediments of ice-dammed, self-draining Ape Lake, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 24: 1735-1747. Kershaw, J.A., Clague, J.J., and Evans, S.G. 2003. Evidence for a two-phase flood from moraine-dammed Queen Bess Lake, British Columbia. Department of Earth Sciences, Geological Survey of Canada Report. Mathews, W.H., and Clague, J.J. 1992. The record of jkulhlaups from Summit Lake, northwestern British Columbia, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 30: 499-508. Nye, J.F. 1976. Water flow in glaciers: jkulhlaups, tunnels and veins. Journal of Glaciology, 2: 181-207. OConnor, J.E., Hardison, J.H., Costa, J.E. 1994. Breaching of lakes impounded by Neoglacial moraines in the Cascade Range, Oregon and Washington. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, 26: 218. Ostrem, G., Arnold, K. 1970. Ice-cored moraines in southern British Columbia and Alberta. Geografiska Annaler, 52: 120-128. Walder, J.S., and Costa, J.E. 1996. Outburst floods from glacier-dammed lakes: the effect of mode drainage of flood magnitude. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 21: 701-723. Walder, J.S., and Driedger, C. 1994. Rapid geomorphic change caused by glacial outburst floods and debris flows along Tahoma Creek, Mount Rainer, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research, 26: 319-327.