GENERIC COMPUTING Demonstrate knowledge of the principles of computer networks Unit Standard 2797 Version 6

Level 3 Credit 4 Name: School/Org: Course: Learners Workbook Learning Purpose & Outcomes The purpose of this unit of learning is to be able to demonstrate knowledge of t he principles of computer networks. People who successfully complete this course will be able to demonstrate knowled ge of the principles of: data communication the features of Local Area Networks (LANs) the features of Wide Area Networks (WANs) Table of Contents Lesson Lesson Lesson 1: Getting Started with Computer Networks What is a network? Data communication Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks 2: Local Area Networks (LANs) What can be shared on a Local Area Network? LAN transmission media Network topologies LAN Protocols Types of LAN Protocols 3: Wide Area Networks (WANs) What is a Wide Area Network? Uses of a WAN Different types of telecommunications WANs Data encryption Data compression

NZQA Information The information contained in this resource is relevant to assessment against the following NZQA unit standards from the Generic Computing Domain. U/S Level 2797v6 3 orks Credit Title 4 Demonstrate knowledge of the principles of computer netw

The information covered in the resource may also relate to unit standards in oth

er domains. Level Descriptor The unit standard is at level 3 of the NQF. At this level the learner is expect ed to be able to: PROCESS LEARNING DEMAND RESPONSIBILITY Carry out processes that: require a range of well developed skills offer a significant choice of procedures are employed within a range of familiar contexts Employing: some relevant theoretical knowledge interpretation of available information discretion and judgement a range of known responses to familiar problems Applied: in directed activity with some autonomy under general supervision and quality checking with significant responsibility for the quantity and quality of output with possible responsibility for the output of others

Lesson 1: Getting Started with Computer Networks Learning Objective When you have finished this lesson you will be able to: define a computer network describe the basic concepts of LANs and WANs In this course we look at the principles of computer networks, including the fea tures of LANs and WANs. Lets get started with the basics of computer networking. Today nearly all busine ss computers and most personal computers are on a network, so it is important to learn why networks are used and how they work. What is a network? A network is two or more computers connected together so that they can share res ources such as files, programs and hardware. For example, a network might consist of the following. Two printers: A colour inkjet, and a laser printer. One file server: This is the main computer on the network. It has several large hard drives on it so it has a large amount of storage space. All the other comp uters are connected to the file server. All files are stored on the server instead of on the individual computer hard dr ives. A tape backup drive on the file server. All of the other computers are called workstations. You need a username and pas sword to use any of these workstations. Every person in the office has an account on the file server. This means that th ey have a unique username and password. Their account also records the other res ources to which they can connect. For example, it specifies which printers they can use, and which files they can access on the servers hard drives.

It doesnt matter which computer the person uses, their account details apply all of the time, on all of the computers. Networks have many advantages. They provide better access to files and hardware with much greater security than standalone computers. In this unit we investigate three important aspects of computer networks: 1. Data communications How computers communicate over different types of co mmunication media. 2. Local Area Networks (LANs) When you would use a LAN, and how the main ty pes of LAN work. 3. Wide Area Networks (WANS) When you would use a WAN, and how the main typ es of WAN work. Think for Yourself XYZ Tax Centre is a small accounting office that employs seven accountants and s ix administration staff. The accountants each have a computer in their own offi ce. The administration staff share three computers between them in an open plan office. They are experiencing the following problems. All of the information stored on the computers is confidential, but it is diffic ult to restrict access to the computers. This is especially true of the administ ration computers. Anybody is allowed to use them, but you dont really know whose work they are accessing. Even in the accountants offices there is no security, other than locking the doors. Someone needs to each night do a computer backup using CDs for each computer. E ach computer currently takes between 15-20 minutes to back up. A backup should be done daily, but because it takes so long, the backup only happens weekly, at best. Some of the accountants clients are business competitors. It is essential that e ach client deals with a separate staff member within the Tax Centre. The problem is that the data for all the clients is on only one of the computers. Most of these problems exist because all of the computers are standalone, and se curity is hard to implement. In what way would things be different if they had a computer network? On the following page, brainstorm possible improvements a network would make for the XYZ Tax Centre.

Data communication These days almost everybody uses data communications. This means that they exch ange computer data over cables or telephone lines. Sending an email, using the Internet, and downloading company data are all examples of data communications. To transfer information from one computer to another requires certain pieces of equipment. Computer Sender Receiver Transmission media Telecommunications provider Lets look at each of these elements and their roles in data communications. The computer Most people use a computer for a particular purpose. It might relate to their j ob, to a group they belong to, or for a hobby or special interest. The computer takes raw data and processes it into information that can be presented in a part icular way. Sender/Receiver devices Somehow we have to get the computer to send and receive the information. There a re two main ways that computers do this: Network Interface Cards (NIC) and Modem s. Network Interface Cards (NIC) NICs make it possible for the computers on a network to communicate with each ot her. Every computer on a network needs a network card. On a desktop computer yo u place the card in an expansion slot inside the computer box. On a laptop, you purchase a network card that uses your PC Card (PCMCIA) slot. The role of the NIC is to ensure that data sent from the computer is delivered t o the correct destination, and that data received is intended for the device to which it is attached. The NIC contains a unique identification number, called a Medium Access Control (MAC) address. The MAC address is unique to every network interface card and uniquely identifies the device to which it is attached on th e LAN. This helps ensure that data is delivered to the correct destination, and is received by the intended device. The NIC also has a way of knowing when it can send the data, as well as some for m of error-correction to make sure that the data arrived correctly. NICs communic ate with each other digitally. Modems Modems are used to send data over large distances using phone lines. You may won der why we dont use a NIC to do this. The reason is that the phone system forces us to use a modem. Telephone lines ar e designed to transmit human voices as an analogue waveform. A computer does not use analogue signals to represent data, it uses 1s and 0s (ie a digital signal). A modem converts the digital data that a computer gives it to an analogue signal that can travel over a phone line. When modems were first introduced they did this conversion in a simple manner, f or example by converting the 1s to a big wave and the 0s to a small wave. Another met od was to make the 1s a high frequency and the 0s a low frequency, so a wave might look like this:

The process of converting digital signals into analogue form is called modulatio n and the process of converting analogue signals back into digital form is calle d demodulation. That is where we get the term modem. Because of the need for fas ter data transfer rates the process of modulation has become more complex over t ime. Transmission media The transmission media are the cables, wires, and phone lines which link data or voice communications devices. The main transmission media in use today include : twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fibre and wireless transmission med ia such as microwave and satellite (more on these later). The telecommunications provider These organisations own and maintain the telecommunications media by which data, voice and video communications link. In New Zealand the largest telecommunicati ons provider is Telecom. Telecom owns and leases parts of its telecommunications network to other provide rs and companies. Telecom s Internet Service Provider (ISP) company is XTRA, to which companies and individuals may subscribe (for a fee). Review

1. In the space below, describe the role the following perform in terms of data communications. Computer Transmission media Network Interface Cards Telecommunications provider Modem Computer: the object that sends and receives data over large distances using pho ne lines. Network Interface Cards: allow the computer to access the network. Modems: Takes digital data and converts it to analogue form then sends it throug h phone lines. Transmission media: the wires or other devise through which the information on t he network moves. Telecommunications provider: These organisations own and maintain the telecommun ications media by which data, voice and video communications link.

Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks In terms of size, there are two types of networks. 1. Local Area Networks (LANs) - usually a group of linked computers within one building or campus. 2. A Wide Area Network (WANs) - usually made up of several LANs connected togeth er. They may be joined over a city, country, or all over the world. They can be connected using: modems satellites radio waves The content or information transmitted on a WAN may be the same as that transmit ted on a LAN. However, there are some important differences in the features of WANs and LANs. Differences in the features of WANs and LANs There are four main differences between WANs and LANs. We are going to investig ate these differences in terms of the following features. Access Cost Digital data transfer rates Distance Access On a WAN a person may have many ways to connect to the network and they may acce ss the network from a number of places. For example, a businessman travelling ov erseas may dialup with a modem to connect to the WAN and access the resources he needs. On a LAN you have to be in the location of the LAN and you can only connect with a NIC. Cost A WAN may use public phone lines where volumes of data traffic are low. This ma kes this choice less expensive than sending data via privately leased lines. Pri vately leased lines are used to send high volumes of data faster than public lin es. Using satellites is expensive and only companies that need the speed will bu y services like this. The costs involved in a LAN are not only measured in terms of the hardware like NICs and servers but also in installing the cabling, the connection devices, and the wages of the network administration team. Digital Data Transfer Rates The rate at which the data reaches the receiver from the sender can vary accordi ng to the method in which the sender and receiver are connected to the WAN. The rate is only as fast as the slowest link. Example: If one user has a fast connection at one end and sends a huge file of a picture to someone who only has a modem connection, the rate at which that picture gets to the receiver is governed by the receivers connection, regardless of how fast t he network is that gets it there. This would also hold true if both the sender and receiver had fast connections b ut there was a slow connection on one or more of the links between them. Data transfer rates on a LAN are governed by the type of LAN it is, and how many people are using the network. Distance A WAN typically covers many thousands of kilometres geographically. The largest WAN, the Internet, covers the globe and interconnects with many smaller WANs an d LANs. A LAN typically connects two or more computers within the same organisation on t

he same geographic site. A LAN in this context will connect several computers o n several floors of a building on a site of up to about 300m geographically.

Review Activity 1 For each description of a network element, circle the answer that you consider t he best. 1) A physical hardware device which produces data from various forms of inp ut, using a program. a) Network Interface Card b) Sender c) Receiver d) Computer 2) Owns whole or part of a transmission network and makes it available to o rganisations and individuals. a) Transmission media b) Computer c) Telecommunications provider d) Network adapter card 3) a) b) c) d) 4) a) b) c) d) Takes digital data and converts it to analogue form. Modem NIC Telecommunications provider Computer Uses a modem to convert analogue signals into digital form. Sender Receiver Telecommunications provider Network adapter card

5) Every network computer has one of these to send data on a network to ano ther computer on the network. a) Telecommunications provider b) Network interface card c) Internet browser d) Transmission media 6) a) b) c) d) The physical links by which data communications travel. Telecommunications provider Internet browser Transmission media Airline terminal

Activity 2 Answer WAN or LAN or BOTH in the space provided next to each statement. 1. Likely to span a wide distance geographically. WAN

2. Most likely to use a combination of cabling and satellite transmission. WAN

3. Access to shared resources is controlled by an in-house network administrator. LAN 4. Can be costly in terms of cabling, computers, personnel and connection devices. BOTH 5. The Internet is one of these. WAN LAN

6. Usually situated on a narrow range geographically. 7. May use public phone lines. BOTH BOTH

8. Client may control protocols, routing, etc.

Lesson 2: Local Area Networks (LANs) Learning Objective When you have finished this lesson you will be able to: identify the uses of LANs describe four LAN topographies compare LAN protocols In this lesson, we will look at the different types of Local Area Networks (LANs ), and LAN topographies and compare LAN protocols. A typical Local Area Network

What can be shared on a Local Area Network? Four common things can be shared on a LAN. 1. Data (ie information) 2. Programs 3. Peripheral devices (printer, scanner) 4. Communications Data and programs Data or information is typically shared using a file server. File servers make files and programs from one workstation available on the server to enable other network users to access them.

Files and applications may be copied from the server to an individual workstatio n computer. Files and programs that live on a server may be accessed and used as if they were located on a user s own individual workstation PC. Think for Yourself In the space below, write down all the kinds of files or documents that you thin k may be stored on a server to be available to multiple workstations on a LAN.

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Peripheral devices Another device which is commonly shared on a LAN is a printer or print server. A print server enables multiple files to be sent to the same printer simultaneou sly, regardless of whether the printer is currently in use. The print server operates from special software installed on a dedicated or shar ed computer which stores the files to be printed until the designated printer be comes available. Printers are commonly shared on a network because it is too expensive to install a printer at every workstation, especially where a high-quality laser output is required. A printer is the most common shared peripheral device, but there are plenty of o thers: plotters, large screens or projection equipment, scanners, digital camera s, and external hard drives are only a few of the possibilities. Communications Email is delivered either through a mail server or by the use of direct delivery . If a mail server is used, one computer is designated as the mail server and oper ates special mail server software to interface with the user s software to send and receive email. If a mail server is used, the message which is sent by the user is stored on the server in a private electronic mailbox for the recipient. At any time the recipi ent may download their mail from the server. Using a mail server is efficient because the receiver computer does not need to be switched on or connected at the time the mail is sent. If a message is sent to multiple users, it needs to be mailed only once - from the sender to the serv er - where it waits to be retrieved by each addressee at a time that suits them. If email is sent using the direct delivery method, mail is sent directly from on e user workstation to another. The advantage of this method is it eliminates th e costs involved in installing a server computer.

However, the direct delivery method means that both the sending and receiving co mputers must be switched on at the time mail is sent. Also, if multiple recipien ts are addressed, the sending computer must have the required software to be abl e to address and send messages to several computers at the same time.

LAN Transmission Media Think Back Can you remember what transmission media are and the role they play? They are the wires or other devices which data travels through. There are four main types of transmission media. Coaxial cable Twisted pair wiring Optical fibre Wireless transmission Coaxial Cable This is the same type of cabling used in homes to transmit cable TV. It consist s of a central copper conductor wire surrounded by a layer of insulation, a copp er mesh braid, and an outer insulator. It can be used to transmit data up to 200 metres but only has a data rate of 10M bps. The other limitation is that without repeaters you can only connect about 3 0 devices to a coax network. Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair wires but generally provides b etter and faster performance. Coaxial cable used to be commonly utilized for com puter networks, but twisted pair wiring has replaced it in most applications. Twisted pair wiring Twisted pair wiring has become the most common type of transmission medium in a LAN. Twisted pair wiring contains pairs of conductors wound around each other t o cancel out interference. Twisted pair wires come in different varieties with different ratings. The most common is CAT5, which has a rated speed of 100Mbps and a maximum run length of a bout 100 metres. CAT5 cable has 4 pairs of twisted wires inside an outer sheath. It is the least expensive LAN medium. Twisted pair wiring comes in a variety of different types and these types of cab les have different speeds and uses. Furthermore, the speed of transmission and amount of data that can be conveyed through the cable is constantly changing. Optical fibre Optical fibres are actually bunches of glass-like synthetic fibres - each fibre would be about the thickness of nylon fishing line. Optical fibre uses pulses of light transmitted by a laser device, rather than an electric current, to transm it a signal. The light pulses at speeds of up to a billion or more pulses per second, making this medium extremely fast and effective for long-distance and high-volume data transmission.

Optical fibre is capable of transmitting data at up to many gigabits per second. However, the cost of materials and complexity of installation makes this option far more expensive than coaxial or twisted pair cabling. Having said this, many LANs use optical fibre cabling as a backbone or main trunk line to their network where data flow is quite high. Wireless transmission There are various types of wireless transmission media, so called because they d on t require any cabling. Wireless transmission methods are increasingly being u sed in LANs for this reason. Wireless methods include infrared, radio frequency (RF), Bluetooth and 802.11. Wireless transmission is convenient because of its portability and lack of cabli ng. Drawbacks include slower transmission than fibre optic cabling, and possibl e interference depending on the location of the transmitters and receivers. Wireless technology also includes microwave and satellite methods of communicati on. These methods are more commonly used as relay stations over global WANs, tha n for LANs. Transmission speeds of telecommunications media Generally speaking, high-speed transmission media are more expensive, but they c an handle higher volumes (which reduces the cost per bit). Medium Speed Coaxial cable Up to 10 Mbps Twisted pair cable Up to 10 Gbps Fibre-optic cable Up to 10 Gbps, (with capacity frequently increasing as t echnology advances). Wireless Up to 150 Mbps Note: Due to rapid changes in technology, cable types, standards and transmissi on speeds are also changing rapidly.

Exercise 2.1 Choose an organisation that requires at least 10 or more workstations on the sam

e site. For example, you could choose your school or a local business in your co mmunity. Pretend you have been asked to make a recommendation on the type of tra nsmission media they should use to transmit data by the most cost-effective mean s. They will almost certainly require a mix of cabling and wireless technology. On ce you have assembled the data, write a short report which includes the followin g information. 1. Name of organisation. 2. Type of business activity. 3. Number of workstations. 4. Transmission media already in use. 5. How much data needs to be exchanged on a daily and monthly basis? 6. Your recommendation on the type of transmission media which will give th e organisation the most efficient, cost-effective data transmission service. If cabling media is already in use, find out whether wireless technology would p rovide a better service. You may wish to talk with telecommunications providers or supply companies to help in your investigation.

Network topologies Network configurations are commonly referred to as network topologies because th ey are like a topographical map. A topographical map gives a birds eye view of th e land, and in a similar way network topologies give an overview of the layout o f a computer network. There are three basic types of LAN topologies: 1. Star 2. Bus 3. Ring Star Topology

A star network is laid out, as the name suggests, so that all of its devices may be connected to a server through a central connection point, called a Hub or Sw itch (see the information box below for the differences between a hub and a swit ch). A star network topology is popular where a server or host computer is used to st ore information and programs, and each workstation is given access to these reso urces. This saves the cost of installing the extra memory, files and programs on to each workstation. The difficulty with this type of topology is that if the hub develops a fault, t he entire connected network is affected. However if one of the cables to the wor kstation computers or a printer fails, then the rest of the network can continue

to operate normally. Another problem is that one workstation could bring the whole network to a crawl if it transmits a large amount of data, especially on a network using a hub.

Exercise 2.2 In the table below identify two advantages and two disadvantages of using a Star Network. Advantages Disadvantages Allows all computers to access the other computers through the hub/switch. Problems with the network are incredibly hard to find, also if a large amount of information is transmitted via the network from one computer the whole network can slow down. Allows all information to be stored on the server. It costs a lot of money to get all the cabling and other devices. Bus Topology

A bus network is one in which computers and other network devices are attached a long a network cable (bus cable) that travels from end to end. Devices are conn ected via connectors that extend from the device to the bus cable. Data transmissions on a bus are sent along the entire length of the cable. This is called propagation. Terminators are required on each end of the network to st op the signal from bouncing back down the cable and interfering with the other sig nals on the line. Data is sent with a destination address attached so that the right computer know s it is for them. Data can flow in both directions but colliding data can cause a bus network to slow down. A bus network has no central connection point, mean ing there is no hub or switch to crash and bring down the whole network. However, a break in the main cable will bring the whole network down. Care must also be taken when adding new devices to the network as the potential for inter ruption to communication is high. The number of devices that can be connected to a bus network is limited. Bus networks are now considered out of date and the group controlling the bus st andards has been disbanded. However, bus typology may sometimes still be found ( as part of larger network configuration).

Ring Topology

In a ring network, all devices are connected in a loop. Each transmission is se nt around the ring in one direction from one workstation to the next until it re aches its destination. Unlike a bus network, packets are not broadcast across the whole network but are passed from one computer to the next until the right receiver recognises the pa cket as being theirs and retrieves it. This is a very logical and organized netw ork where every device has equal access to the transmission media. Another advantage of a ring network is that it performs better than a star netwo rk under a heavy network load. It also does not require a network server to mana ge the connections between individual devices. The downside of ring topologies is that they require expensive cabling, and if a fault develops in the cable or an individual workstation it can cause problems for the entire network. Hybrid Topologies We have already seen that networks come in various forms. Many large LANs are n ot as simple as the three basic topologies. Often smaller networks are combined to form larger LANs. Hybrid networks are formed when two or more different bas ic network topologies are connected. With that, they bring the best and the wor st of the different connection options used. One of the main advantages of hybrid typologies is that they can be customised t o meet the needs of a specific network environment. On the other hand, they can be confusing if they are not mapped out clearly. Here are two examples of hybrid topologies. Star-bus typology

The star-bus topology combines star and bus networks to support the ability of t

he network to be expanded in the future much better than a bus topology or a sta r topology on their own. The bus topology is limited in the number of devices th at can be connected because of the traffic it generates, and the star topology i s limited by the number of hub connections points. The star-bus hybrid helps to overcome these limitations. Another advantage of this type of typology is that it uses point-to-point wiring for individual segments. If one computer fails, the hub can detect the fault an d isolate the computer, meaning that if one computer develops a fault it will no t affect the rest of the network. However, a disadvantage is that if the hub develops a fault, all computers on th at hub will be disabled and the bus network will be broken into two parts which cannot communicate. This topology is also more difficult to configure and wire t han some other topologies.

Star-Ring topology

In a star-ring topology the network is wired as a star, but handles network traf fic like a ring. In the same was as a ring network, each computer in a star-ring topology has equal access to the transmission media. This allows for greater ne twork traffic between segments than in the star-bus topology. Another advantage is that, unlike a pure ring topology, if a single computer fai ls, it will not affect the rest of the network. This is because the star-ring to pology includes a Multistation Access Unit or MSAU (also sometimes abbreviated a s MAU). The MSAU detects when an individual workstation or link is not working p roperly and it bypasses it. This allows the ring to continue operating. The world of wireless Wireless technologies utilise various types of network design. A wireless netw ork is made up of Wireless Access Points and Wireless Clients. Wireless Access Points are base stations that transmit and receive radio frequencies. Wireless Clients are computers that are equipped with a Wireless Network Interface Card t hat enables the device, (such as a PC, PDA, laptop, etc.), to communicate with t he Wireless network. Wireless networks generally come in two main types: ad-hoc (or peer-to-peer) ne tworks and wireless access point (or infrastructure wireless LAN). Peer-to-peer (P2P) networks enable two devices to communicate directly with each other witho ut using access points, when they are close enough to do so. For example two la

ptops might communicate when they are near each other. An access point structur e uses access points (as the name implies). These can be localised, (such as wi thin a building), or massively scaled (such as a metropolitan wireless system).

Wireless LAN

Metropolitan wireless network LAN Protocols Lets summarise what we have learnt so far.

What is a LAN? A LAN (Local Area Network) is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices. A LAN can be wired (ie created via cables ), or wireless (ie transmitted on wireless frequencies). How are LANs connected? There are three basic ways that wired LANs can be set up to connect all the comp uters and devices on the network. These are called topologies. The topologies we have discussed are star, bus, and ring and hybrid. As well as these basic topologies, wireless LANs (known as WLANs) might use a ra nge of other topologies. A LAN topology is like the map which shows how a system of roads is connected so that someone can drive around a city. Before it is safe to drive, however, the system needs other things to be in plac e. Most importantly, there has to be some road rules which are designed to prev ent cars colliding. In computing, these rules are called protocols. Protocols determine how devices can exchange information, in what form the information is transmitted, and how t he various devices can send information on the same cable in an orderly way. Re member, protocols are not pieces of machinery or hardware; they are the rules th at are built into the software that tells data how to flow around the LAN. There are a large number of protocols that different types of LANs use. The pro tocols vary according to how the network allows devices (like computers) to gain access to it so that they can send their data, and how the data itself is trans mitted across the network. The important thing is that these protocols (or rul es) need to be agreed upon and standardised between the various companies that m anufacture computer equipment and the software that enables LANs to work. Before comparing how the various LAN protocols work, we first need to know a lit tle bit about the different ways that a computer can access a network, how compu ters can transmit data across it, and how the various layers of a network functi on together. LAN access and transmission methods If several computers were to try to send data down the same cable at exactly the same time there would be a collision between the various bits of data. In orde r to prevent this, LANs use one of two main ways to allow devices to access the network in order to send data. These are known as the contention access method and controlled access method. Contention access method In a contention-based network, each device competes with every other device to a ccess the network. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detect) is one contention-based method. With this method, if a device (like a computer) is about to send data a cross the network it first detects whether any other device is using the network to send data. If the network is clear, the device will send its data. Remember, however, that all of this is occurring in tiny factions of a second, s o it is possible for two different computers to check the network, find that it is clear, and to send their data at the same time. This will cause a collision o n the network. So once the data is sent, the device listens again to the network traffic to see if there was a collision between the data it sent and the data s ent by any other device. If there was, the device will resend the data. CSMA/CA (short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) is a form of media access very similar to CSMA/CD, but it is used in wireless LANs rather th an in hard wired networks. This is also a contention access method. Controlled access method Token passing is a different way in which media can be accessed and transmitted on a LAN. In this system, the network has a token (a piece of software) that it passes from device to device. If a device (like a computer) has the token, then it can send data along the network. If a device doesnt have the token then it is

not able to send data. Once the device has sent the data, it releases the token. Another device on the network can then get hold of it so that it is able to send its own data. This type of method is known as a controlled access method because the device wi th the token controls access to the network. Shortening delays in sending data across a LAN As you can imagine, the need to wait to send data across a LAN results in delays . While each delay may be a micro second, if you have millions of bits of data waiting to be sent, it can all add up to a noticeable amount of time. Most of us who work on networked computers will have experienced a pause while our compute r seems to be making up its mind to do something. This pause may well have been the result of many hundreds of tiny delays affecting how quickly the computer c an send data across the network. There are several ways to speed up communication across the network to reduce th e delays that users would otherwise experience. The most common is to break the cable up into small segments and to install switches at the end of each segment. This is a bit like creating a one lane bridge and putting a place where cars ca n wait and pass each other in the middle of it. Instead of having to wait until the whole network cable is free of traffic before sending its data, a computer o nly has to wait until the segment closest to it is clear. The switch then parks the data until the next segment is free before sending it on. The second most common way of speeding up a network is to enable data to travel in two directions at the same time. Normally CSMA/CD networks do not allow a dev ice to send and receive information at the same time. (This type of LAN works j ust like a walkie-talkie or a one-lane bridge.) But if the LAN is broken up int o segments with switches between them, then the network becomes duplex. This sim ply means that data can be both sent and received at the same time. The switches allow the network to work more like a telephone or a two-way road.

Network layers When you look at a house you can see that there are several layers that make up the house. There is the foundation, the floor, the walls, the ceiling, the atti c, and finally the roof. In much the same way, computer networks are also made up of layers. In fact there are seven of them. The seven layers of a computer network are summarised in the table below. Host layers 7 Application layer The layer that interacts with th e computers operating system. 6 Presentation layer Converts the data provided by the Applic ation layer and converts it into a standard format that the other layers can und erstand. 5 Session Layer Maintains order by starting and stopping session s. It starts, maintains, and ends transmission with the receiving device. 4 Transport Layer Controls the flow of data to ensure orderly deli very of the entire file or message. Media Layers 3 Network layer Routes data from/to different devices ba sed on network address. 2 Data Link Layer Transmits packets of data around the network, fr om segment to segment. 1 Physical Layer The actual electrical signals and cabling.

Each layer builds on the one below it in order to convert electrical signals int o the various functions of a computer that we recognise when we send emails, pri nt documents, or share data over a network. Every layer of the network will use different types of protocols (or rules) to determine how it operates. Without these protocols there would be chaos both within each layer of the network, and also between each layer. Types of LAN Protocols Now that we have learnt about media access and transmission methods and the seve n layers of a network, we can discuss LAN protocols in a little more depth. Ever y layer of the network will use different types of protocols (or rules), and the various types of protocols will often rely on different access and transmission methods. We are going to look at five common LAN protocols. Ethernet This is the most widespread LAN protocol and there are a number of different Eth ernet variants. Half duplex is the most common of these for wired hub networks. It can send and receive data, but cannot do both at the same time. Ethernet uses a contention access method by means of CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Mult iple Access with Collision Detection), where any device can try to send a packet a t any time. Each device senses whether the line is idle and therefore available for use. If it is, the device begins to transmit its packet. If another device has tried to send at the same time, a collision occurs and the frames are discarded. Each device then waits a random amount of time and retrie s until successful in getting the transmission sent. Token Ring This type of LAN is now very rare in New Zealand, but is still quite commonly re ferred to in other countries such as the USA. In the case of Token Ring LAN, all the LAN devices are connected in ring or star topology. Data travels in one dir ection only, and token-passing is used in order to prevent the collision of data between two computers that want to send messages at the same time. When a computer has a message to send, it waits for the token and inserts a mess age and a destination identifier in the frame. The frame is then examined by ea ch workstation in turn. If the workstation sees that it is the destination for the message, it copies th e message from the frame. If not, the frame continues on its circuit until the correct recipient finds it. FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) This type of LAN is a network made up of two Token Rings using optical fibre. Th e second ring provides backup in case the main ring fails. As with the Token Rin g LAN protocol, token-passing is the media access method used by FDDI. TCP/IP TCP/IP is a network protocol used in both LANs and WANs. Data from the sending c omputer is broken down into bits and grouped into packets that can travel throug h communications channels to the receiving computer. The receiving computer then reassembles the data in a form it can use. If the re ceiving computer finds a damaged packet, it asks the sending computer to resend it. TCP/IP allows computers using two different software and hardware platforms to c ommunicate. Wi-Fi (Wireless Local Area Network) This term is used loosely for both a type of network technology and for the LAN protocol. Wi-Fi applies to the physical network layer, with Ethernet usually bei ng used at the data link layer. As for Ethernet, Wi-Fi uses a contention access method by means of CMSA/CA for wireless networks.

Exercise 2.3 Choose a small or medium sized business that has a computer network. Talk to th e Network Administrator or another ICT team member to find out what topology(ies ) and protocols are used.

Lesson 3: Wide Area Networks (WAN) Learning Objective When you have finished this lesson you will be able to: identify and compare the uses and hardware requirements of telecommunications WA Ns identify and describe the principles of WANs in terms of data compression and en cryption What is a Wide Area Network? A Wide Area Network (WAN) consists of computers that communicate using telephone , satellite or other long-distance connections, sometimes over thousands of mile s geographically. A WAN is often made up of several (or millions in the case of the Internet) of L ANs connected in some way. The Internet is a global WAN which interconnects with many smaller networks arou nd the world. The Internet developed from a network called Arpanet, which was a product of the US military. An organisation might have a large LAN installed at its head office and smaller networks in several field or remote offices. They may then provide a communicati ons link between all branches through a WAN. Large corporations generally lease dedicated lines to connect their LANs into a WAN, although rarely they may inve st in the cabling or satellite technology themselves. Networks are connected to each other through a variety of special connection dev ices including modems, bridges, routers and gateways. For example, a bank s cen tral computer system is connected to many branch offices throughout a country an d may be connected to a global communications centre using a WAN.

Uses of a WAN A WAN can be used in a similar fashion to a LAN but with one important differenc e: the distance between the workstation and server is much greater. Data sharing In terms of sharing of data, a company connected through a WAN may share data in the same way as a company connected in a LAN, as long as they have the correct software applications installed on their computers to support the type of data a nd have access to the data to be shared. One disadvantage of a WAN is that it can be slow to transfer large data files ac ross the network, particularly uploading files. The speed of transfer depends on the technology used to connect the computers/LANs, and other traffic on the net work. Many LANs have dedicated cabling that allows fast data transfer. WANs can also have fast data transfer but there is more variability in the speed and reliabili ty of the transfer. Businesses that have invested in dedicated lines have more control over network conditions than those using public lines (eg the Internet). Financial transactions and stock levels are two examples of data frequently shar

ed across a business WAN. Programs For a company connected via a WAN, programs can also be accessed in the same way that they are on a LAN. As long as the user has access permissions, programs ca n be run remotely as though the user were on the LAN. A common program used over a WAN is a companys stock or ordering database. Often the data is stored in a central server, and queries (or questions and their answ ers) are sent back and forth. If a copy of a business database were held at each LAN, it would be impossible to have up-to-the minute information about stock ava ilability across various locations. Programs running over Wide Area Networks transfer data back and forth and face t he same problems sharing data in terms of less reliability and slower speeds tha n LANs. Most workstations on a WAN have commonly-used software installed on the workstations or on a server on the LAN to limit the amount of data being sent ba ck and forth. For example, most workstations on a WAN will have an office suite (word processo r, spreadsheet, etc) installed, as well as a web browser and security software. Each computer can then use their programs without clogging up the network with program commands. Workstations may also have client side software for larger prog rams. This is where each workstation has its own set of instructions on how to d o whatever it is supposed to do. Therefore it only sends data across the network , not the instructions as well. Peripheral devices The same principle applies to the sharing of peripheral devices such as printers . As long as the user has permission to access the attached device, and as long as their network software allows their remote computer to interface with the dev ice, there is no reason why peripheral devices cant be used from afar - it may be a bit difficult for the sender to see the resulting printout though! For convenience sake, most peripheral devices are located locally throughout the network. Communications Unlike a LAN, the connections in a WAN are often made using equipment that is no t owned by the user s organisation. WAN services may be provided by a telecommun ications company. These services may consist of a combination of switched and de dicated lines and satellites. Switched lines are telephone lines that can be accessed to transmit data to anot her computer. The call is routed, or switched, through paths to the destination. Dedicated lines are often able to transmit data at higher speeds than switched l ines and are more appropriate for transmitting high volumes of data. Switched li nes are less expensive and more appropriate for low-volume data transmission.

Different types of telecommunications WANs We will look at seven different types of telecommunications WANs: 1. Voice 2. Data 3. Packet switched 4. Frame relay 5. ATM 6. ISDN 7. DSL/ADSL Voice Teleconferencing makes it possible to talk to one person or several people at on

ce. When this is used in conjunction with a computer and modem it becomes a chea p and easy way to communicate over a large geographical area. With the right hardware attached to the computer, it can also be used for video conferencing. However, it is limited in terms of speed. Data There is also a dedicated data network available. This usually comes in the form of a leased line, which is a direct connection between two LANs. This is useful for companies who wish to share a large volume of information and it is very fa st. However, it can be expensive to install and to run, so it is used mainly for larger networks. Packet switched Packet switching is a method used in various transport protocols. This method br eaks up large blocks of data into smaller packets which are then transmitted ind ividually. The packets can even follow different routes to their destination. On ce all the packets have reached their destination they are reassembled back to t he original data. This also allows packets to be routed around congested or brok en parts of the network. If a packet doesnt arrive, or it is damaged, then the receiver can request that p acket again. This is perfect for a WAN situation and is very common in many WAN protocols. In fact the Internet is based on a packet switching protocol: TCP/IP . This method is favoured because often the transmission medium cannot be relied upon 100% and resending one small packet is much faster than resending a whole 10 megabyte file. Frame Relay Frame Relay is designed for intermittent traffic between LANs, or from the endpo int of one WAN to another. In many senses it is a fast version of packet switch ing. Frame Relay cuts data into frames (like packets) and then transmits them. I t doesnt attempt any error correcting of the data frames; this is done at the end -points instead. As the technology of cabling and end-points has advanced, some of the need for the error correction capability of packet switching has reduced , and Frame Relay takes advantage of this. This means that transmission is faste r. Frame Relay is most commonly used to connect LANs with major network backbones, or in WANs. Frame Relay is not ideal for voice or video transmission because bot h require a steady flow of transmission, although it is sometimes used in this w ay. The emergence of fast DSL services is likely to make Frame Relay less popular ov er time. ATM ATM is not the automated teller machine at your local bank, at least not in this context. ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It secures a connection b etween the two endpoints (from which data is transmitted and received) and then breaks up the data traffic into fixed-sized sequences of data. These are either 53 byte or 48 byte cells of data and 5 bytes of header information. ATM was designed to enable both dedicated circuit networks and packet switched n etworks to work in a compatible way, whilst still enabling the benefits of packe t switching to be maintained. For example, voice traffic that is broken up into packets that are transmitted at variable speeds and sizes with no guarantees ab out timing could make for very frustrating listening! ATM enables protocols for voice and packets to be used together within the same network. It uses technologies from telecommunications rather than the computer i ndustry, and has been widely adopted by many Telcos worldwide. However, the tech nology is very complex and this has held back its deployment. In many ways IP (Internet Protocol) has overtaken some of what ATM was trying to achieve, and the newer Voice over IP technology (which enables voice traffic to be transmitted over computer networks) means that there are cheaper options ava ilable nowadays.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) ISDN is an international standard that allows voice, digital and video pictures to be shared between users over publicly switched phone lines. All the information is transmitted over a single twisted-wire telephone line own ed and managed by a telephone company. Two levels of ISDN are available: The basic rate ISDN provides two 64 kbps channels for voice, data and video and one 16 kbps channel for control information (like the phone number of the receiv ing address). The primary rate ISDN provides 1.5 Mbps of bandwidth divided into 31 channels fo r voice, video and data and one channel for control information. DSL and ADSL DSL is short for Digital Subscriber Line. It enables digital data transfer over the phone network. It comes in two main forms: ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, for which download speeds are faster t han upload speeds. This is the most common. SDSL: Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line, for which download and upload speeds are equal. The download speed of DSL usually ranges from 128 kbps to 100 Mbps (overseas). D SL technologies have enabled telecommunications companies to get much more servi ce out of the expensive cabling that they deploy. DSL requires a DSL modem that converts digital signals into voltage signals. A table summarising these seven different types of WAN is given on the next page .

Telecommunications WANS Method Use Hardware requirements Advantage Voice Voice; Teleconferencing; Videoconferencing Telephone, server, compu ter with sound, video and network adapter card, modem, connector terminal, prefe rably fibre-optic cabling/satellite transmission media. Cheap. Ability f or sender and receiver to hear and/or view each other. Eliminates travel costs. Data Email; Text; Graphic; Or any combination of these Server, computer with network adapter card, connector terminal, modem, router, preferably fibreoptic or satellite transmission media. May include a mainframe. Fast eff icient communication between sender and receiver. Where a mainframe or Internet is used, allows access to vast stores of data. Packet switched Information from many users is divided into small packets which are sent when a communication channel becomes available. Server and works tations with network adapter card, modem, connector terminal, router, preferably fibre-optic cable or satellite transmission. Faster and more economical than if senders lease own single lines. Allows facilities to be used more fully and shared by more users. Frame Relay Data is divided into Frames that are sent between the endpoints of LANs or WANs when a communication channel becomes available. Server and works tations with network adapter card, modem, connector terminal, router, preferably fibre-optic cable or satellite transmission. Faster than packet switching, bu t requires better cabling and end-point technology to work. Allows facilities to be used more fully and shared by more users.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Data is cut up into fixed size cells wit h identifying headers to enable the cells to be re-assembled rapidly. Telecomm unications provider and line, server and workstations with network adapter card, modem, connector terminal, router, etc. Enables both dedicated circuits and packet switching to work together, so suitable for both data and voice traff ic. Widely used by Telco companies. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) International standard to transmit voice , digital and video. Computer with network adapter card, modem and ISDN line. Provides speedy ability to transmit all kinds of voice, video and digital information re gardless of source or destination hardware. DSL (ADSL or SDSL) Digital data transmitted over the standard telephone net work. Computer with DSL modem, filter to split the frequencies for voice and d ata traffic over the phone lines, and an ISP service provider. Provides speedy ability to transmit all kinds of voice, video and digital information over the s tandard telephone network, thereby reducing hardware costs for telecommunication network suppliers. Data encryption LANs and WANs (especially the Internet) have changed the way we live, work and c onduct our businesses. Online home shopping and e-commerce means that all sorts of information is electronically transmitted. With all of this data traffic passing along the information super highways and c yberspace, the need to avoid confidential and private information being tapped and stolen is very important. Think for Yourself What types of information do you think would require strict protection from bein g used or tampered with by unauthorised hackers? Students school marks, company secrets/military secrets, research projects. Bank account numbers.

Usually, access to sensitive, confidential information is restricted to prevent an unauthorised person accessing that information. One way this is done is by re quiring the user to authenticate that they are who they say they are by entering a username and password. Once access has been gained and private information e ntered, it is then encrypted before being transmitted. Encryption software uses a process by which the details of a file are scrambled into an unreadable format so that if anyone did hack into the files, they would no t be able to decipher the content of the encrypted file. Once the transmission has been received by the intended destination, the encrypt ed file can only be decoded by entering a key, which is a code agreed upon by the sender and receiver, stored on a separate system. The message is then made read able to the receiver. Data compression While on holiday, have you ever tried to close your overstuffed suitcase and wis hed you could somehow shrink the contents of your luggage? The principle of dat a compression works to shrink the contents of data files. With vast quantities of data being transmitted electronically, data compression has been introduced to save file space and transmission time, both of which save costs to the user.

Think for Yourself What sorts of files or documents do you think would need to be compressed to sav e time and space (and cost) in transmission? Images, big excel sheets, raw video.

For data transmission, compression can be performed on just the data content or the entire transmission packet (including header data). Compression can be as si mple as removing all extra space characters, inserting a single repeat character to indicate a string of repeated characters, and substituting smaller bit strin gs for frequently occurring characters. This kind of compression can reduce a t ext file by up to 50% of its original size and can significantly compress a file containing graphic images since these files normally use a lot of space. Compression is performed by software that uses a formula to determine how to com press or decompress data. For example, if we wanted to send a file with the numb er 777777777 in it, the software could change that to 7x9. Instead of transmitting 9 bytes, we transmit 3. Using Windows, data is typically compressed using WinZip which will allow severa l files to be zipped together and compressed to significantly reduce the total siz e of the package being transmitted. Review Activity 1 Draw an arrow to correctly match the WAN components with the correct description : 1. Switched line a) Global WAN that interconnects with many smaller Networks around the world. 2. WAN b) Call is routed or switched through paths to destination. 3. Packet switching c) Network which connects computers over many t housands of miles geographically. 4. Internet d) Transmission lines dedicated to one client. 6. Encryption e) Via Uniform Resource Locator. 7. ISDN f) Modems, bridges, routers, gateways. 8. Dedicated lines g) Data compression software. 9. WAN connection devices h) The breaking up of lengthy blocks of text into small bundles. These are routed and received, then reassembled at re ceiver s end. 10. Compression i) Allows voice, digital and video pictures to be shared between users using a single twisted-wire phone line. 11. Internet access j) Data is encoded by sender. Receiver enters unique key to decode information. 12. WinZip k) Size of file is shrunk by substituting smaller bit s trings for frequently occurring characters.

Activity 2 Find a company or organisation in your area (or on the Internet) that regularly sends information using a WAN Network. They will also probably operate on a num ber of LANs for each office location. Try to choose a large organisation, like a bank or department store chain. Visit or email them to ask the following questions: 1. What type of hardware do they use to connect to their WAN? 2. What type of network operating software do they use? 3. How do they share data and programs? 4. Do they have any regular videoconferencing and, if so, what type of tran smission media and protocols do they use? 5. If they communicate via email and videoconferencing, does this provide s ignificant savings for their company in terms of travel costs? 6. Do they have a website? 7. Do they operate any e-commerce and, if so, what? 8. Do they use any regular compression or encryption to transmit data? 9. Who maintains their WAN network? Once you have completed your research, produce a short report on your findings. Don t forget to add a header page stating your name and the name of your WAN or ganisation.

Congratulations! You have now completed learning the information for this course. Your tutor will advise when and how you will be assessed on what you have learnt . Tutor Attestation This learner workbook has been submitted and marked. Through the accuracy and q uality of the learners responses to questions and activities in the workbook, I a m confident that the learner has demonstrated the knowledge and skills required to sit the assessment for this unit standard. Name: Position Held: Date: Signature: