Alkali Metal

The alkali metals are the elements located in Group IA of the periodic table. The alkali metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. The alkali metals exhibit many of the physical properties common to metals, although their densities are lower than those of other metals. Alkali metals have one electron in their outer shell, which is loosely bound. This gives them the largest atomic radii of the elements in their respective periods. Their low ionization energies result in their metallic properties and high reactivity. An alkali metal can easily lose its valence electron to form the univalent cation. Alkali metals have low electronegativities. They react readily with nonmetals, particularly halogens. Summary of Common Properties

Lower densities than other metals One loosely bound valence electron Largest atomic radii in their periods Low ionization energies Low electronegativities Highly reactive.

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Alkaline Earth Metals
The alkaline earths are the elements located in Group IIA of the periodic table. The alkaline earths possess many of the characteristic properties of metals. Alkaline earths have low electron affinities and low electronegativities. As with the alkali metals, the properties depend on the ease with which electrons are lost. The alkaline earths have two electrons in the outer shell. They have smaller atomic radii than the alkali metals. The two valence electrons are not tightly bound to the nucleus, so the alkaline earths readily lose the electrons to form divalent cations. Summary of Common Properties

Two electrons in the outer shell Low electron affinities Low electronegativities Readily form divalent cations.

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Lanthanides
Lanthanides share the following common properties:

Silvery-white metals that tarnish when exposed to air, forming their oxides. Relatively soft metals. Hardness increases somewhat with higher atomic number. Moving from left to right across the period (increasing atomic number), the radius of each lanthanide 3+ ion steadily decreases. This is referred to as 'lanthanide contraction'. High melting points and boiling points. Very reactive. React with water to liberate hydrogen (H2), slowly in cold/quickly upon heating. Lanthanides commonly bind to water. React with H+ (dilute acid) to release H2 (rapidly at room temperature). React in an exothermic reaction with H2. Burn easily in air. They are strong reducing agents. Their compounds are generally ionic. At elevated temperatures, many rare earths ignite and burn vigorously. Most rare earth compounds are strongly paramagnetic. Many rare earth compounds fluoresce strongly under ultraviolet light. Lanthanide ions tend to be pale colors, resulting from weak, narrow, forbidden f x foptical transitions. The magnetic moments of the lanthanide and iron ions oppose each other. The lanthanides react readily with most nonmetals and form binaries on heating with most nonmetals. The coordination numbers of lanthanides are high (greater than 6; usually 8 or 9 or as high as 12).

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Actinides
The electronic configurations of the actinides utilize the fsublevel. Depending on your interpretation of the periodicity of the elements, the series begins with actinium, thorium, or even lawrencium. The actinides (An) are prepared by reduction of AnF3 or AnF4 with vapors of Li, Mg, Ca, or Ba at 1100 1400C. Actinides share the following common properties:

All are radioactive.

Actinides are highly electropositive. The metals tarnish readily in air. Actinides are very dense metals with distinctive structures. Numerous allotropes may be formed (plutonium has at least 6 allotropes!). They react with boiling water or dilute acid to release hydrogen gas. Actinides combine directly with most non-metals.

* * * * * * * Nitrogen Group
The elements of Group 15 show a marked trend towards metallic character on descending the Group. This trend is reflected both in their structures and in their chemical properties, as for example in the oxides which become increasingly basic. Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere, and makes up 78% of the air by volume. Phosphorus is not found free in nature, but occurs in several minerals and ores such as phosphate rock. The other elements are all found in the elemental form in the earths crust, but more frequently as minerals. The physical properties of this Group vary widely as nitrogen is a gas, and the other elements are solids of increasingly metallic character. Nitrogen exists as the diatomic molecule N2. It is a colourless, odourless gas, which condenses to a colourless liquid at 77K. The strength of the bond and the short bond length provide evidence for the bond between the N atoms being a triple bond. Phosphorus has at least two allotropes, red and white phosphorus. White phosphorus is a solid composed of covalent tetrahedral P4 molecules, and red phosphorus is an amorphous solid which has an extended covalent structure. The covalent radii of the atoms increase on descending the Group. However, the N atom is anomalously small and so it can multiple-bond to other N, C and O atoms. Both nitrogen and phosphorus exist in oxidation states +3 and +5 in their compounds. Nitrogen is very unreactive, mainly because its bond enthalpy is very high (944 kJ mol-1). The only element to react with nitrogen at room temperature is lithium, to form the nitride Li3N. Magnesium also reacts directly, but only when ignited. Some micro-organisms, however, have developed a mechanism for reacting directly with nitrogen gas and building it into protein this is called nitrogen fixation, and is an important early step in the food chain. Phosphorus is more reactive than nitrogen. It reacts with metals to form phosphides, with sulfur to form sulfides, with halogens to form halides, and ignites in air to form oxides. It also reacts with both alkalis and concentrated nitric acid.

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Carbon Group
The expected similarity in appearance between elements in the same Group is much less apparent in Group 14, where there is a considerable change in character on descending the Group. Carbon is a dull black colour in the form of graphite, or hard and transparent in the form of diamond; silicon and germanium are dull grey or black; tin and lead are a shiny grey colour. In Group 14 the elements change from non-metallic in character at the top of the Group to metallic at the bottom. Carbon is a non-metal, silicon and germanium are metalloids, and tin and lead are typical metals. The general reactivity of the Group as a whole is therefore difficult to ascertain, and the reactivity of each element must be considered individually. Carbon exists in two important allotropic forms, diamond and graphite. Diamond has an extended covalently-bonded structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to four others. This compact, rigid arrangement explains why diamond is both extremely hard and chemically inert. Graphite has a layer structure. Planes of covalently-bonded carbon atoms are held together by weak van der Waals forces, and slide over each other easily. Chemically, graphite is more reactive than diamond but still does not react easily. However, it does oxidise at high temperatures and this is the reason why carbon is used in various forms as fuel. Silicon is chemically unreactive. Germanium is also unreactive and not widely used, so will not be considered further. It does, however, have excellent semi-conducting properties so may become more widely used in a few years time. Both tin and lead are generally unreactive metals. Tin has two common allotropes. At room temperature the stable form is white tin; below 286.2K the stable form is grey tin. Tin has a tendency to displace lead, and not vice versa as may be expected. Carbon, tin and lead can all be found in the elemental form in the Earths crust, and are readily mined. Silicon is found in mineral deposits and purified from them. Very pure silicon is required for semi-conductors, and is obtained from sand via silicon(IV) chloride. This is first purified by fractional distillation, then reduced to give the element. The silicon is then further purified by zone refining, in which a molten zone is moved along a silicon rod several times, carrying impurities to one end where they are removed. The physical properties of Group 14 elements vary quite widely from one element to another, consistent with the increasing metallic character on descending the Group. The structures change from giant molecular lattices in carbon and silicon to giant metallic lattices in tin and lead, and this is the reason for the changes in physical properties. The change in bonding from covalent to metallic down the Group causes a decrease in melting point, boiling point, heat of atomization and first ionization energy. At the same time, the increasing metallic character causes a general increase in density and conductivity. Diamond has a very high refractive index (the reason for its sparkle) and this, along with its rarity, has made it valuable as a jewel. However, it is also the hardest natural substance known and so is important industrially.

The most important physical property of silicon is that it is a semi-conductor. Small silicon chips, just a few millimeters square, have revolutionised the computer and microprocessor industries. Tin and lead, as typical metals, are good conductors of electricity. The first member of the Group, carbon, is strikingly different from the others as it has the unique ability to form stable compounds containing long chains and rings of carbon atoms. This property, called catenation, results in carbon forming an enormous range of organic compounds. The ability to catenae results from the C-C bond having almost the same bond energy as the C-O bond, so that oxidation of carbon compounds is energetically favorable. Also, the small size of the carbon atom allows two carbon atoms to approach close together and allow overlap of p-orbital, so that multiple bonds can be formed. The organic compounds formed from carbon have a chemistry entirely different to any inorganic counterpart. The C-C and C-Si bond energies are very similar, so many organo-silicon compounds are known. Silicon does not, however, form multiple bonds. Silicon is unreactive chemically because an oxide layer seals the surface from attack, and high temperatures are required for oxidation to occur. Silicon does, however, react with fluorine at room temperature. It is not attacked by aqueous acids, but does react with concentrated alkalis. Tin and lead are quite easily oxidized, tin usually to tin(IV) and lead to lead(II). Both tin and lead reduce the halogens.

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Transition Metals
Because they possess the properties of metals, the transition elements are also known as the transition metals. These elements are very hard, with high melting points and boiling points. Moving from left to right across the periodic table, the five d orbitals become more filled. The delectrons are loosely bound, which contributes to the high electrical conductivity and malleability of the transition elements. The transition elements have low ionization energies. They exhibit a wide range of oxidation stae or positively charged forms. The positive oxidation states allow transition elements to form many different ionic and partially ionic compounds. The formation of complexes causes the d orbitals to split into two energy sublevels, which enables many of the complexes to absorb specific frequencies of light. Thus, the complexes form characteristic colored solutions and compounds. Complexation reactions sometimes enhance the relatively low solubility of some compounds. Summary of Common Properties

Low ionization energies Positive oxidation states Very hard

High melting points High boiling points High electrical conductivity Malleable Five d orbitals become more filled, from left to right on periodic table.

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REFERENCES:
Chemtutor.com Wikipedia.org Encarta Encyclopedia 2011