CAMARINES SYR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGES NAGA CAMPUS Laboratory highschool

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SCIENCE

1-B
Submitted by: GROUP 4 Submitted to: Mrs. Yolanda Beguia DAMS.. Beavers build them from sticks. Landslides create them from trees, mud, and debris. Humans make them from earth and concrete. These structures are dams. Dams hamper the flow of water in a river or stream. Landslides dont mean to create dams. They do so by dumping a lot of earth and other stuff in a river. Scientists think beavers build dams for protection. Beaver dams capture water in front of the lodges in which beavers live. Beavers can hide from their enemies in this deeper water. A dam

also protects the beaver lodge by slowing the rivers speed. A surging tide carries huge amounts of energy. People can use this energy to produce electricity. Water from a rising tide is channeled through a dam. The flowing water turns turbines. Turbines are engines that change the energy of motion into electricity. The dam traps the water behind it. When the tide falls, water flows back out. It turns the turbines again and generates more electricity. Tidal power plants work best in places with a large tidal range. The first tidal power plant opened in France in 1966. Someday there may be a tidal power plant at the Bay of Fundy. Some things that people did have harmed rivers. Some factories built along rivers polluted river water. Some of the dams prevent rivers from carrying sediment to the sea. Some dams have changed the way animals live in the rivers. For example, dams can prevent salmon from swimming upstream to spawn. People have taken steps to protect rivers. They passed laws to prevent factories from polluting rivers. Some dams are being taken down to let the water flow freely. People now know that rivers are important and must be protected. WHY DO WE BUILD DAMS? We build dams to control water. A dam built across a river or stream stops the waters flow. Water collects in a lake behind the dam. The lake stores water for people to use later. The lake, or water storage area, is called a reservoir. The water in reservoirs travels in pipes to peoples homes for drinking water. It can flow through canals for farmers to use in watering their crops. People also sail boats and swim in reservoirs. Many dams use reservoir water to

produce electricity. Water flows into large machines called turbines inside the dams. The turbines power other machines that generate electricity. Electricity produced in this way is called hydroelectric power. Some dams are built to prevent flooding. During the rainy season, the reservoir stores the rivers extra water. During the dry season, the dam sends the reservoir water back into the river. HOW BIG ARE DAMS? If youve ever visited a large dam, you know it is an amazing sight. Dams are some of the biggest structures ever built. The Hoover Dam on the border of Nevada and Arizona is as tall as a 72-story building. The Grand Coulee Dam in the state of Washington contains enough concrete to build a sidewalk all the way around the Earth. Few dams are this big, however. Most dams are small structures less than 10 feet (3 meters) tall.

WHAT ARE DAMS MADE OF? Many large dams are made of concrete. Some are made of packed earth or rocks. Because these materials are not as strong as concrete, dams made of earth or rocks must be very thick. The Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is made of earth and rock. It contains more than 15 times as much material as the Grand Coulee Dam. Dams must be strong enough to withstand the pressure of water against them. Dams also must be cared for and repaired. A dam that breaks can cause disaster. In 1889, a dam in Pennsylvania broke and let loose a wall of water. The

water submerged the town of Johnstown, knocking down houses and killing more than 2,000 people. EXAMPLES OF DAMS

The Grand Dixence Dam in Switzerland is one of the tallest dams in the world.

Hoover Dam Dams are built to control the flow of water in a river or stream. Many dams make electric power. The Hoover Dam is a dam on the Colorado River between Arizona and Nevada.

Lake Mead Lake Mead is a reservoir, or artificial lake, located in southern Nevada at the Arizona border. It formed when the Hoover Dam was built across the Colorado River.

Grand Coulee Dam The Grand Coulee Dam uses water to produce electricity. It is located in Washington State.

Grand Dixence Dam

500,000 dams worldwide. The vast majority of these are small structures less than 3 m (10 ft) tall. Engineers regard dams that measure more than 15 m (50 ft) high as large dams. About 40,000 large dams exist in the world today. WHY DO PEOPLE BUILT DAMS? People build dams to divert water out of rivers for use in other locations or to capture water and store it for later use. The volume of water flowing in any given river varies seasonally. In the spring and early summer, rivers typically swell with water from rainstorms and mountain snowmelt. In the drier months of late summer and autumn, many rivers slow to a trickle. Storage dams impound seasonal floodwater so it can be used during periods of little or no rainfall. The water that backs up against a storage dam forms an artificial lake, called a reservoir. Release of water from the reservoir can be controlled through systems of pipes or gates called outlet works.

Douglas Dam In 1933, the federal government created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to build dams to control flooding along the Tennessee River and to make electricity. The TVA constructed Douglas Dam along the French Broad River in east Tennessee in 1942.

VERY FIRST CANALS AND DAMS About 8,000 years ago, Mesopotamians learned how to build canals and dams. The canals carried river water to their fields. Mesopotamians began to build large, productive farms, and the population grew. The region became rich and powerful. What are dams? Dam, structure that blocks the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. Some dams divert the flow of river water into a pipeline, canal, or channel. Others raise the level of inland waterways to make them navigable by ships and barges. Many dams harness the energy of falling water to generate electric power. Dams also hold water for drinking and crop irrigation, and provide flood control. The oldest known human-made dams were built more than 5,000 years ago in arid parts of the Middle East to divert river water to irrigate crops. Today there are more than

Irritation and drinking water

From ancient times to the present, people have built dams to capture water to irrigate crops in areas where rainfall does not provide enough ground moisture for plant growth. Simple irrigation systems often depend on small diversion dams that

raise the height of a stream. Flowing water backs up against the dam until it overflows into a canal, ditch, or pipe that carries the water to fields. Large storage dams support sophisticated modern irrigation systems that have dramatically altered the landscape of arid regions throughout the world. For example, large storage dams in the American West have transformed millions of acres of arid desert into productive cropland. Hoover Dam, which stretches across the Colorado River near Las Vegas, Nevada, stores about twice the annual flow of the river in its reservoir, Lake Mead. This reservoir holds enough water to cover the state of Pennsylvania to a depth of one foot. Lake Mead helps provide a dependable water supply for more than 400,000 hectares (1 million acres) of farmland in southern California and southwestern Arizona, and 162,000 hectares (400,000 acres) in Mexico. Dams also replenish the water supply of cities and towns. Colorado River water impounded by Hoover Dam in Lake Mead helps provide water for drinking and other uses to more than 16 million people in greater Los Angeles, California, and portions of Arizona and southern Nevada. HYDROELECTRIC POWER

distributed to industrial and residential consumers throughout the western United States. The Itaip Dam, on the Panar River between the countries of Brazil and Paraguay, continuously generates more than 12,600 megawatts of electricity. It supplies nearly 80 percent of the electric power used in Paraguay and 25 percent of the electricity used in Brazil.

Hydroelectric dams generate electricity (see Waterpower). Hydroelectric dams harness the energy of water released from the reservoir to turn hydraulic turbines. The turbines convert the energy of the falling water into mechanical energy, which is used to power electric generators. The Grand Coulee Dam, on the Columbia River in Washington State, continuously generates more than 6,500 megawatts of electricity. This power is

Dams designed to generate electricity deliver water to a building, called a powerhouse, which contains highly specialized power-generating equipment. Large pipes called penstocks carry water from the reservoir down into the powerhouse. Water exits a penstock through small openings, which concentrate the flow and direct it onto the blades of a large hydraulic turbine. The force exerted by the falling water rotates the blades, and this action drives the shaft of an electric generator. The shaft spins giant magnets in the generator, creating an electric current (see Induction). Power lines transmit the current to consumers within a regional

power network (see Electric Power Systems).

FLOOD CONTROL

Dams also protect low-lying areas from floods (see Flood Control). Floods occur when more rain falls than the soil and vegetation can absorb. The excess water runs off the land in greater quantities than rivers, streams, ponds, and wetlands can contain. Such heavy rains, and also snowmelt, periodically cause rivers to overflow their banks, spilling onto the surrounding floodplain. Ensuing floods can damage property and endanger the lives of people and animals.

caused the reservoir to overtop the dam. In some cases, the spillway is completely separate from the main body of the dam. This type of spillway usually comprises a gently sloped concrete channel that carries excess water around the dam and deposits it in the river below. In other cases, the spillway is part of the actual dam. Such spillways release water directly over the top of the dam through an overflow area that is slightly lower than the crest of the dam. In still other cases, excess water drains through a vertical shaft spillway, then into a gently sloped conduit that carries it through a tunnel and into the river downstream from the dam.

To control floodwaters in floodplains, engineers sometimes construct a group of dams and reservoirs along streams that feed into main rivers. Water from snowmelt and heavy rains is stored in the reservoirs, then released gradually into the main rivers during the dry season. This strategy is exemplified by the dams of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a federally sponsored corporation created in the 1930s by the President and Congress of the United States. Most dams include an important safety feature called a spillway for use during extreme flood conditions. A spillway provides a way for excess floodwater flowing into a reservoir to be diverted around a dam. Without a spillway, the floodwater could overtop the dams crest and erode the backside of the dam, which might cause it to collapse. When this happens, millions of cubic meters of water can rush downstream, causing mass destruction. In 1889 more than 2,000 people were killed in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, when, during a heavy rainstorm, the South Fork Dam collapsed after a clogged spillway

NAVIGATIO N Dams help make inland waterways accessible to ships and barges. By inundating shallow, rocky streambeds and controlling the release of water from reservoirs, dams make rivers deep enough for ships and barges to pass through without running aground. For example, to make the Ohio River in the eastcentral United States navigable

throughout its length, engineers constructed a series of 13 dams. These dams enable commercial vessels to travel from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to the Mississippi, one of the most important shipping rivers in the world. When a dam obstructs a navigable river, engineers build a canal adjacent to the dam to permit ships and barges to bypass the dam. Canals may incorporate one or more locks, which contain mechanisms to control the water level. Ships and barges are raised or lowered with changes in the water level in the lock. One gate in the lock then opens, enabling a vessel to exit to a higher or lower section of the waterway. Locks prevent water from rushing uncontrolled through the canal.
MULTIPLE-PURPOSES

prefer the water levels to be high because it makes for better swimming and boating.

Many modern dams serve two or more purposes. For example, the TVA designed and built dams along the Tennessee River and its tributaries to provide flood control, generate electric power, and control river levels to permit year-round navigation. While a dam can serve many different functions, it can prove impossible to operate at maximum efficiency for each purpose. For example, irrigation, power generation, flood control, and recreation may place conflicting demands on dams. A farmer who depends on a dam for irrigation wants water released from the reservoir only when crops need water during the summer growing season. On the other hand, an electric power company wants water released throughout the year to provide its customers with a steady source of power. Dams provide the most effective flood control when reservoir levels are relatively low, enabling them to easily absorb runoff from unexpected storms. But people who use reservoirs for recreational activities

KINDS OF DAMS Dams are classified by the type of material used in their construction and by their shape. Dams can be constructed from concrete, stone masonry, loose rock, earth, wood, metal, or a combination of these materials. Engineers build dams of different types, depending on the conditions of the riverbed, the geology of the surrounding terrain, the availability of construction materials, and the availability of workers. When more than one type of dam will suffice, engineers often opt to construct a type that they have built previously. GRAVITY DAMS

Gravity dams use only the force of gravity to resist water pressurethat is, they hold back the water by the sheer force of their weight pushing downward. To do this, gravity dams must consist of a mass so heavy that the water in a reservoir cannot push the dam downstream or tip it over. They are much thicker at the base than the topa shape that reflects the distribution of the forces of the water against the dam. As water becomes deeper, it exerts more horizontal pressure on the dam. Gravity dams are relatively thin near the surface of the reservoir, where the water pressure is

light. A thick base enables the dam to withstand the more intense water pressure at the bottom of the reservoir.

closely match the natural slope of a pile of rocks or earth.

Most gravity dams are made from concrete, a mixture of portland cement, water, and aggregates (varying mixtures of sand and gravel). Concrete is well suited for dam construction because it is waterproof, extremely strong, and can be easily poured into forms. Concrete gravity dams make use of a triangular cross-section and steep upstream face that could not be constructed using loose material.

Concrete can also be expensive, making concrete gravity dams costly structures to build because they require so much concrete to resist the forces of the water pressure. The Grand Coulee Dam contains nearly 8 million cubic meters (almost 10 million cubic yards) of concrete, enough to build a sidewalk 1.2 m (4 ft) wide and 10 cm (4 in) thick twice around the equator. It is one of the most massive structures ever built, standing 168 m (550 ft) high and 1,592 m (5,223 ft) long. EMBANKMENT DAMS

Of the many different kinds of embankment dams that exist, rock-fill embankment dams and zoned-embankment dams are among the most common. Rockfill embankment dams consist of a mound of loose rock covered with a waterproof layer on the upstream side to prevent excessive seepage and erosion. The waterproof layer may be made of concrete, flat stone panels, or other impervious materials. Zonedembankment dams include an impervious core surrounded by a mound of material that water can penetrate. The supporting mound is usually made of loose rock or earth. The core might be built from concrete, steel, clay, or any impervious materials. Like concrete gravity dams, embankment dams hold back water by the force of gravity acting upon their mass. Embankment dams require more material because loose rock and earth are less dense than concrete. Despite the huge volumes of material required to build an embankment dam, engineers often choose to build them if the materials are readily available. The Tarbela Dam, which crosses the Indus River in Pakistan, contains more than 126 million cubic meters (more than 165 million cubic yards) of earth and rock. This amounts to more than 15 times the volume of concrete used in the Grand Coulee Dam.

An embankment dam is a gravity dam formed out of loose rock, earth, or a combination of these materials. The upstream and downstream slopes of embankment dams are flatter than those of concrete gravity dams. In essence, they more

ARCH DAMS

Arch dams are concrete or masonry structures that curve upstream into a reservoir, stretching from one wall of a river canyon to the other. This design, based on the same principles as the architectural arch and vault, transfers some water pressure onto the walls of the canyon. Arch dams require a relatively narrow river canyon with solid rock walls capable of withstanding a significant amount of horizontal thrust. These dams do not need to be as massive as gravity dams because the canyon walls carry part of the pressure exerted by the reservoir. For example, the Glen Canyon Dam, which spans the Colorado River in Arizona, is the highest arch dam in the United States. It is 216 m (710 ft) high and 475 m (1,560 ft) long but contains less than 4 million cubic meters (under 5 million cubic yards) of concrete. Because they require less material than gravity dams, arch dams can be less expensive to build. Not all concrete and masonry dams that curve into a reservoir qualify as arch dams. In some cases, engineers choose to use an arched shape even if it is not a structural necessity. For example, Hoover Dam features a prominent curve but the structure is actually thick enough to stand as a gravity dam. In many ways, the massive dams curvature comprises more of an aesthetic effect than it does a structural necessity.

BUTTRESS DAMS A buttress dam consists of a wall, or face, supported by several buttresses on the downstream side. The vast majority of buttress dams are made of concrete that is reinforced with steel. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 m (20 to 100 ft), depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. Buttress dams fall into two basic categories: flat slab and multiple arch. Flat slab buttress dams have a flat upstream face. These dams are sometimes called Ambursen dams in recognition of Nils Ambursen, the Norwegian-born American engineer who popularized them in the early 20th century. An example of a flat slab buttress dam is the Stony Gorge Dam, which crosses Stony Creek near Orland, California. It stands 42 m (139 ft) tall, stretches 264 m (868 ft) long, and contains 33,000 cubic meters (43,100 cubic yards) of concrete. Multiple arch buttress dams feature an upstream face formed by a series of arches. The arches rest on top of buttresses that extend down to the foundation. Bartlett Dam, on the Verde River near Phoenix, Arizona, is a multiple arch dam. It stands 94 m (309 ft) high, stretches 244 m (800 ft) long, and contains nearly 140,000 cubic meters (182,000 cubic yards) of concrete. Like arch dams, buttress dams require less concrete than comparable gravity dams, but they are not necessarily less expensive to build than concrete gravity dams. Costs associated with the complex work of forming the buttresses or multiple arches may offset the savings in construction

materials. Buttress dams may be desirable, however, in locations with foundations that would not easily support the massive size and weight of gravity dams. HOW DAMS ARE BUILT

divert the flow of river water through or around a site. When working with streams and rivers that do not flood heavily, engineers may choose to concentrate river flow into a specially built canal or flume and erect the dam around it. In the final stages of construction, they fill in the part of the dam that contains the canal or flume. Large, volatile rivers require more elaborate diversion systems. In some cases, engineers excavate tunnels into the walls of the canyon for the river to flow through. They then build temporary diversion dams, called cofferdams, to direct the river water into the tunnels. The water passes through the diversion tunnels and eventually flows back into the river at a location downstream from the dam site. This technique enables engineers to completely remove water from the foundation and excavate down to a clean, solid base of bedrock. For example, to construct Hoover Dam across the floodprone Colorado River, engineers drilled four tunnels 15 m (50 ft) in diameter and more than 0.8 km (0.5 mi) long. Excavation of the diversion tunnels alone took more than a year. DESIGN

The complexity of dam construction varies with the size of the dam. A small dam across a stream might be built in just a few weeks. But a large structuresuch as Hoover Dam, which towers 221 m (726 ft) above the riverbedcan take several years to plan and several more years to actually build. Dams of this scale require extensive site testing to verify that the underlying rock can withstand the pressure exerted by the dam and the reservoir. The river must be temporarily diverted and the foundation cleared of earth and loose rock. In some cases roads and other distribution systems must be constructed to transport millions of tons of material and equipment as well as thousands of personnel to the site. Project planners may also have to construct temporary housing for workers to live in while they work at the site. SITE PREPARATION

Site selection also helps determine the type of dam to be constructed. In locations with steep canyon walls of solid bedrock, engineers might opt to construct concrete arch dams. Gravity dams and buttress dams are well suited to wide, flat river valleys. Once a site and the basic dam type have been selected, engineers use some basic mathematical formulas to determine the dams dimensions. The pressure exerted on a dam by water stored in a reservoir is directly proportional to the depth of water

A dam must rest on a strong foundation. Dam builders must sometimes dig 30 m (100 ft) or more through earth and loose rock to reach solid bedrock. When excavating a foundation, engineers have to

pushing against the dam. Water pressure is not affected by the total size of the reservoir; it depends only on the reservoirs depth. This means that a reservoir 20 kilometers long and 25 meters deep exerts no more pressure against a dam than a reservoir 1 kilometer long and 25 meters deep. Along with basic shape and dimensions, engineers analyze the weight and strength of available materials and calculate how much of each type would be required to safely hold back the reservoir. They use this information in formulas designed to ensure that a dam will be thick enough and therefore strong enoughto hold back a reservoir without collapsing or being tipped over. SITE TESTING

site presents a unique set of conditions that engineers must evaluate individually.

Before construction begins, engineers survey the geology of a proposed site to ensure that it will provide a foundation strong enough to support the weight of the dam. They evaluate the structural condition of the bedrock by drilling core samples that can be further studied in geological laboratories. The engineers must also determine if excessive amounts of water from the reservoir will seep into the rock, which could undermine the foundation and cause the structure to collapse or wash away. Engineers also consider the possible stresses that the foundation will be subjected to, as it must withstand the weight of both the dam and the water in the reservoir. Larger dams exert greater stresses, which means that a foundation adequate for a dam 30 meters high may be inadequate for a structure 120 meters high. Much scientific study and analysis goes into the process of designing and building a dam and every dam