1.

Utilitarianism
Based on consequences and outcomes

General Principle 1. An action is right and ought to be performed as it leads to overall happiness or benefits, as opposed to pain or costs 2. Happiness enjoyed by an aggregate of persons 3. The moral actor should give equal weight to the pleasure and pain experienced by the affected persons in the community or society 4. Factors in determining happiness value a) Intensity of pleasure b) Duration of pleasure c) Certainty that pleasure will materialize d) Remoteness of the pleasure sought e) Repeatability of the pleasure f) Purity of the pleasure (if it would also be accompanied by pain) g) Extent (no. of people affected) How does one distinguish between higher and lower pleasures? Identification should rest with persons (or competent judges) who have experience and knowledge of both pleasures If there are any difference in the preferences among judges, majority decision should prevail Why should judges/moral agent obey the general principle of greatest happiness (utilitarianism)? Moral agent may experience remorse and attacks on his conscience for his immoral actions Moral actor may encounter external sanctions in the form of disfavor or displeasure from others Shortcomings 1. Ignores the rights of minority - greater good is achieved at the expense of the minority a. No distributive justice 2. Happiness is difficult to quantify (subjective) a. Hard to assign quantitative values to aesthetic values and human attributes 3. Scarce resources and time do not allow us to make adequate predictions of the consequences of our intended actions 4. Duration of the expected benefits and costs may also impact on the determination of the expected utility of the activity a. For long term intangible benefits, should the interest of future generations be considered? 5. Moral actor unable to make interpersonal comparisons of utility a. To proceed, the actor needs to be in the position of the community and know Xs preference and value of the act in question 6. Assuming the consequences (remoteness not considered) 7. Focuses on instant gratification not on a long term basis

2. Kantian Ethics
Pure Reason reason a priori without resort to empirical or sensory facts

General Principle 1. Universal rule a) A rational person possesses understanding and seeks to exercise his will based on reason, free from impulses, inclinations and senses b) One must act from a moral duty, instead of acting based on inclinations or interests 2. Categorical Imperatives applied as necessary rules without admitting exceptions a) Principle of Universality: There should not be double standards in the determination of ethical conduct b) Principle of Humanity: Against the use of persons solely as a means to an end 3. Four specific duties based on the Categorical Imperatives a) No suicide: contrary to self-love and preservation of life, using ones own person as a means (contrary to the Principle of Humanity) b) No false promises: distrust among persons and the treatment of the lender as a means only c) To develop ones talents and capacities: developing ones talents would advance the end of humanity as an end in itself d) To show benevolence towards others: principle of reciprocity Difference between acting from a moral duty and acting in conformity with a moral duty Shopkeeper who does not overcharge an inexperienced customer but instead fixes a general price for every customer Shopkeeper acts in conformity with duty. If shopkeeper is motivated by personal advantages or self interest, then he is not acting from duty. Thus, it would be unethical. Shortcomings 1. Absolutist applying that same rule for anything and everything based on the four categorical imperatives 2. Extreme ethical view and decision (black and white)

3. Rawls Ethics
Justice as fairness, equal rights and opportunities A rational person in the original position would not be concerned with maximizing total welfare if, at the same time, he is likely to suffer serious disadvantages

General Principles 1. Decisions must be made under a veil of ignorance fairness ground a. Hypothetical self-interested and rational man would not know in advance anything of the competing individuals b. Without that knowledge, the rational and self-interest actor could not make any self-serving decisions primarily to benefit himself 2. Principle of Justice a. Each person is to have an equal right i. Not to be traded for greater socio-economic advantages b. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged (allocation, transfers, stabilization and distribution to be done by government) i. To the greatest benefit of the least advantaged ii. Attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity 3. Fair Equality of Opportunity Principle a. Important in allowing the realization of everyones capacities same as 2b (ii) 4. Different Principle a. Greatest benefit accrues to the least advantage representative member of society same as 2b (i) b. Conservative attitude in decision making maximizing the minimum outcome among a number of possible options. Each rational person does not know whether he will become the least advantaged person. 5. Be in the persons shoes (what if it was me?)

4. Ethical Egoism Free Market Theory (Adam Smith)

An action is right to the extent that is based on self interest

General Principle 1. Each individuals pursuit of their self interest will achieve, via the invisible hand overall benefit to the economy 2. Based on assumption that a. Buyers and Sellers have perfect knowledge of the market b. Economic actors always act rationally 3. Rationalized self interest a. Doing for my own good makes the world better

5. Virtue Ethics Aristotle and Robert Solomon

A human capacity to be human - focuses on human character, actions or practices rather than pure knowledge - actions speaks louder than words

General Principles 1. Virtue is defined as a purposive disposition, lying in a mean that is relative to us and determined by a rational principle. a. Mean - Certain actions or feelings are subject to the doctrine of the mean (pg. 46) b. Relative to us the scope of virtue depends on the moral actors relative judgment as to where the mean lies c. Rationality is a hallmark of the doctrine of mean, some relativity or subjectivity is imported into the moral equation d. Purposive some mental deliberation or connotes the existence of an objective aimed at by the moral actor in question (mean refers to a purposive disposition) 2. If a persons acts are involuntary, that person should not be adjudged immoral even if his acts harm another person. This might be due to a. Ignorance of the circumstances and the objects of the act, and the person suffers subsequent pain and remorse b. Compulsion (when the cause is external and the agent contributes nothing to the act 3. Moral judgment or assessment can only be made if the act is done voluntarily a. Moral actor caused the act and is aware of the specific circumstances of the actions b. Implies a choice, that is, something that is within a persons power to perform upon deliberation Solomons Aristotelean Approach to Business Ethics Profits should be seen as a means to building a better business, and serving society better rather than as an end in itself Six parameters that define virtues in business ethics 1. Community the corporation is itself a citizen and a member of a large community 2. Excellence emphasis on merit in the market place 3. Membership focus on the individual within the organization and corporate role morality 4. Integrity the notion of integrity as wholeness which involves openness, affection and flexibility, a sense of the social context as well as moral courage 5. Judgment good judgment means making the best decision available where ethical rules do not give on right answer 6. Holism this relates to the notion of a stakeholder and the concept of social responsibility Shortcoming Does not offer direct, normative rules and principles of human conduct Does not provide straightforward rules or principles for determining right actions in a particular situation Virtues are dependent on societal views and may vary with the times

Moral Hypocrisy
Knowing that it is wrong but we still do it When individuals seek to create the impression of being moral while not actually having to bear the costs of being so This has an intuitive appeal in that individuals avoid negative feedback to their self-image, while not having to suffer difficult consequences they would wish to avoid.

Moral Relativism
Relative to the moral views of the individual or culture Two different levels a. Individual each individual person has his or her own set of moral beliefs which are different from another individual b. Cultural the situation where each society or culture has its own set of generally accept moral principles which are different from another society May be issue dependent

Ethical Framework 1. Facts

Known (Dont need to write down) Unknown (what extra facts do I need to make the decision) creative analysis is needed here Who are they? Who is affected? Who is involved? Broader = more sound Identify it among all the business decision making Avoid normative myopia lose sight of the big (long-term) picture Apply the ethical theories here to help you evaluate and argue the issue broadly Draw the ethical theories but do not lock in, exercise flexibility Solutions that are more ethical appealing something better Consider the duration, whether it matters or not and if its applicable Consider existing legal laws, rules of an organization, religion Not always reliable but good starting point Note that laws and religion are not ethics Why did I choose that? Back up with reasoning on how you reach your decision Use of ethical theories to help shape your decision Take note of a slippery slope If I allow this, will it open more doors to other ethical issues that are less okay? What can I learn from it?

2. Stakeholders

3. Ethical Issues

4. Alternatives

5. External Sources

6. Decision

7. Re-assessment

*Use any ethical approach that you want. *This is just a framework; a fuller description is needed when addressing the issue. *Creative analysis is needed!!

Workplace Ethics l: The workplace & society, sexual harassment & discrimination Workplace & Society Relationship between employee and employer pg 81 Efficiency (work productivity) vs Equity (ethical behavior viewed by employee and employer as normal) pg 83 Employment at Will (employee or employer can terminate the relationship) pg 84 Acts and Bills pg 84 Vicarious Liability (employer liable for employees actions) pg 85 Technology change the workplace pg 87 Sexual Harassment In Asia (history, legislation, situation) pg 90 Ethical theories & Sexual Harassment pg 92 Consequences of sexual harassment in workplace pg 93 Acts and Bills pg 94, 97 Sexual favors for promotions pg 94 Definition of a hostile working environment sexual harassment pg 95 Types of Sexual Harassment pg 96 Discrimination Discrimination situation in Asia pg 99 Ethical theories & Discrimination pg 100 What constitutes as a discrimination pg 101 Types of discrimination pg 102 Examples of positive discrimination pg 103 Age Discrimination pg 105 Gender Discrimination pg 106 Workplace Ethics ll: Privacy, conflict of interest & whistle-blowing Privacy Why privacy is important pg 119 Privacy and freedom of expression (forms of privacy) pg 120 What is privacy pg 123 Types of privacy pg 124 Ethical theories & Privacy pg 125 Privacy at workplace pg 127 Who should have access to such info pg 128 Right methods of collecting info pg 129 How the info can be used pg 132 Conflict of Interest Definition of conflict of interest pg 136 How does it arise pg 137 Four kinds of situation where conflict of interest arises pg 139 Chinese walls to prevent the conflict of interest pg 142 Types of conflict of interest pg 143

 How to manage a conflict pg 145 Four step solution to conflict pg 146 Whistle-blowing Definition of whistle-blowing pg 149 Whistle-blowing in Asia (laws) pg 151 Types of whistle-blowing pg 152 Whistle-blowing is morally unjustified pg 154 Whistle-blowing is morally permissible pg 155 Factors to make it morally permissible pg 157 Factor to make it morally required pg 159 Laws and bills to protect whistle-blowers pg 160 Whistle-blowing policy pg 162 Professional Ethics Attributes of a profession (legal) pg 418 Characteristic of a profession pg 419 Definition of professional misconduct pg 421 Professional Code of Conduct pg 427 Medical Profession (Hippocratic Oath) pg 428 Other Ethical Issues (1) Conflict of interest in professions pg 432 Law of agency pg 436 (2) Chinese Walls pg 438 (3) Fees and Over Charging pg 439 (4) Competence Legal Ethics What is a legal profession pg 449 Sources of legal ethics pg 452 Lawyers duty to the court pg 457 Truthfulness in court pg 457 Responsibility of clients conduct pg 458 Honoring an undertaking to the court pg 458 Respect for the court pg 459 Responsibility to assist in the administration of justice pg 459 Lawyers duty to his client pg 460 Honesty or the Duty to be Honest pg 460 Diligence and Competence pg 461 Confidentiality pg 463 Conflict of interest pg 463

Advertising and Marketing Advertisements What are advertisements pg 177 Ethical theories & advertising pg 177 Two primary concerns How should the message be delivered Pg 178 Implicit effects of the advertisement pg 179 Deceptive Advertising pg 180 Fact or assertions pg 180 Metaphorical pg 180 Getting around the problem of being deceived by exaggerations in ads pg 181 Half truths pg 182 Assumption that it is morally impermissible pg 182 Irrational Persuasion Ethical theory and persuasion pg 183 How is it done pg 183 Playing on natural human desires pg 183 Invoking powerful visual images pg 184 Research to prove pg 184 Subliminal Advertising pg 185 Argument against subliminal ads (human ability to process info below the threshold of perception) pg 185 Human possessing the capacity of reason pg 186 How to address advertising issue from an ethical pov pg 186 International Chamber of Commerce pg 190 Marketing What is marketing pg 193 Caveat Emptor & Caveat Venditor pg 193 Competition pg 194 Buying up competitive firms pg 194 Predatory Pricing pg 194 Cartel pg 194 Pricing pg 195 Over pricing products (shortages) pg 195 Over pricing products (immobility) pg 195 Over pricing products (to give discounts) pg 195 Sales Practices pg 196 Fulfilling quotas pg 196 Special offers pg 196 Labeling and dating products pg 196 - 197 Direct or targeted marketing pg 197 Consumer Protection Act pg 200 - 201