By A.W.

1

CHAPTER THREE

3. Design of Channels

3.1. General
The success of the irrigation system depends on the design of the network of canals. The canals may
be excavated through the difference types of soils such as alluvial soil, non-alluvial soil etc. the design
consideration naturally vary according to the type of soil. Again, the velocity of flow in the canal
should be critical. That means, the velocity should be non-silting and non-scouring. If the velocity
becomes less than the critical velocity, then silting will take place and the capacity of the canal will be
reduced. If the velocity becomes more than the critical velocity then the scouring will take place and
the channel will be damaged. So, determination of critical velocity is very important in canal design.
Based on the water requirements of the crops on the area to be irrigated the entire system of main
canal, secondary canal, tertiary canal and field distributaries should be designed properly for a certain
realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them, so as to provide sufficient irrigation to
the commands. Again, the design of unlined and lined canals involves different practical and
economical consideration.
3.2. Definition of some terms
1. Alluvial soil:
The soil which is formed by continuous deposition of silt is known as alluvial soil. The river carries
heavy charge of silt in rainy season. When the river overflows its banks during the flood, the silt
particles get deposited on the adjoining areas. This deposition of silt continues year after year. This
type of soil is found in deltaic region of a river. This soil is permeable and soft and very fertile.
2. Non-alluvial soil
The soil which is formed by the disintegration of rock formation is known as non-alluvial soil. It is
found in the mountains regions of a river. The soil is hard an impermeable in nature. This is not fertile.
3. Silt factor (f)
In designing of a canal in alluvial soil, the suspended silt and the deposited silt in the canal bed should
be taken into consideration with great importance. During the investigation work in various canals in
alluvial soil, Lecey established the effect of silt on the determination of discharge and the canal
section. So, he introduced a factor which is known as silt factor. It depends on the main particle size
of silt. It is denoted by f. Determined by the expression

f
m f 76 . 1 =
Where m
f
= mean particle size of silt in mm.

4. Coefficient of rugosity (N)
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The roughness of the canal bed affects the velocity of flow. The roughness coefficient, being a
parameter representing the integrated effect of the channel cross sectional resistance, value of N
depends on the type of bed materials of the canal.




5. Mean velocity
Velocity distribution in a canal section usually varies from one point to another, this is due to shear
stress at the bottom and at the sides and due to the presence of the free surface. Field observation
shows that average velocity for open channel flow to be the average velocity measured at 0.2 and 0.8
of y from the free water surface.
2
8 . 0 2 . 0 y y
av
V V
V
+
=
6. Critical velocity (V
o
)
When the velocity of the flow is such that there is no silting or scouring action in the canal bed, then
that velocity is known as critical velocity. Generally the critical velocity depends on the nature of the
soil formation in which the water flows. Table below shows the critical velocity for different soil
formations:

Nature of soil Critical velocity m/s
Sandy soil 0.3 to 0.6
Black cotton soil 0.6 to 0.9
Firm clay and loom 0.9 to 1.15
Gravel 1.2
Hard rock More than 3.0
Concrete 6.0
Steel lining 10.0


7. Critical velocity ration (CVR)
The ratio of the mean velocity V to the critical velocity V
o
is known as critical velocity ratio. It is
denoted by m.

m
V
V
CVR
o
= =
When m equals 1 there is no silting or scouring, when m > 1, scouring will occur and when m < 1
silting will occur. So, by finding the value of m, the condition of the canal can be predicted whether it
will have silting or scouring.
8. Hydraulic radius (R)
Is the ratio of the cross-sectional area to the wetted perimeter of the channel
P
A
R =

By A.W.
3

9. Full supply level (FSL)
The maximum discharge capacity of the canal for which it is designed, is known as full supply level.
10. Economical section
In irrigation canal water flows under the force of gravity, to flood the command area left and/or side of
the canals the FSL of the canal is generally kept above the natural surface level (NSL). Naturally to
hold the water in the channel it is partly excavated below the NSL and partly above the NSL. To be
economical the depth of excavation is arranged that the quantity of the earth excavated from the canal
section is just sufficient to construct the banks. The depth of excavation is called balancing depth.
In addition to that the conveyance of the channel will be efficient when the channel section have
minimum perimeter for a given area, slope and roughness coefficient are fixed.


Fig: Balancing depth
Y is balancing depth
D is full supply depth
H is height of the top of bank above the bed of bank
T is top width of the bank
B is bed width of the cannel
m:1 is side slope in cutting
n:1 is side slope in filling
For economical section Cutting = filling in banks
( ) )) ( )( ( 2 y H n T y H my B y + = +
Generally side slope in cutting is kept 1:1 and filling kept as 1.5:1.
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11. Regime channel
When the characteristics of the bed material of the channel are same as that of the transported material
and when the silt charge and silt grade are constant, then the channel is said to be in its regime and the
channel is called regime channel. A channel in which neither silting nor scouring takes place is called
regime channel or stable channel. This stable channel is said to be in state of regime if the flow is such
that silting and scouring need no special attention.
3.3. Design of non-alluvial channels
The non-alluvial soils are stable and nearly impervious. For the design of canal in this type of soil, the
coefficient of rugosity plays an important role, but the other factor like silt factor has no role. Here, the
velocity of the flow is considered very close to critical velocity. So, the mean velocity given by
Chezy,s expression or Mannings expression is considered for the design of canal in this soil.
After along investigation in various canals, Chezy and Manning have established the following
expressions for finding the mean velocity flow.
Chezy formula
o
RS C V =
Where C is a coefficient which depend on the nature of the surface and the flow and known as chezy
coefficient, S
o
is bed slope of the channel. C can be calculated from the following formula:
1. Pavlovski formula
x
R
n
C
1
=
In which x= 2.5 ( ) 1 . 0 75 . 0 13 . 0 n R n and n is Mannings coefficient
2. Ganguiller and Kutter formula
R
n
S
S n
C
o
o
(

+ +
+ +
=
00155 . 0
23 1
00155 . 0 1
23

3. Bazins formula
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R
M
C
+
=
1
0 . 87
In which M is a coefficient dependant on the surface roughness
Channel M for unlined channel M = 1.30 to 1.75, for lined channel M = 0.45 to 0.85
Mannings formula
2
1
3
2
1
o
S R
n
V =
Where n is roughness coefficient known as Mannings n [L
-1/3
T]. This coefficient is essentially a
function of the nature of the boundary surface.
A
V
Q =
Where Q is design discharge m
3
/s
A cross sectional area of the channel m
2

V mean velocity of flow
Design procedures of non-alluvial channels
1. Start with a design discharge and select the permissible velocity
2. Determine the area of the channel by Q=AV formula
3. Compute for the hydraulics radius by using Chezy or Mannings equation
4. Write the hydraulics radius in terms of B and Y and equate it with result of step three
5. Write the area in terms of B and Y and substitute B of step 4 in this equation, then you will
have quadratic equation to solve for the value of Y.
3.4. Design of alluvial channels
If the procedure adopted for the design of channels on non-alluvial soil is applied over alluvial
channels, then the silt load carried by the irrigation water is not considered. The principle of design of
a channel on alluvial soil is totally different from that of channel on non-alluvial soils. Channels on
alluvial soil carry appreciable silt and sand load. When the channel water has excess silt load silting
occur in the channel. On the contrary when the water is silt free it picks up the silt from the channel
bed and sides, it results in erosion of channel section. Mannings and Chezys equation do not consider
this aspect. When silting takes place the channel section is reduced and consequently capacity of the
channel is reduced. When scouring occurs firstly the water level is lowered with in turn reduces the
command. Secondly the scoured material is deposited at some other place to disturb the equilibrium
condition there. Taking the problem of silt transportation in to account it was necessary to evolve some
basis for the design of a stable section with critical velocity. There are two important and most
commonly used theories. They are Kennedys silt theory and Laceys theory.
After long research in different canals and different conditions R.G Kennedy, Punjab and Gerald
Lacey have established some theories for the design of canals which are known as Kennedys theory
and Lacey theory. Those two theories are based on the characteristics of sediment load (i.e silt) in
canal water. The behavior of the silt load is explained by the theory which is known as silt theory
3.4.1. Kennedys regime theory
Kennedy established a relation between non scouring, non silting velocity, termed as critical
velocity of flow and the stage of flow on the basis of experimental work collected from 22 channels
on the upper Bari-Doab canal system in Punjab (Pakistan). For any given channel having a particular
soil condition, the critical velocity ratio which is a function of silt charge and grade and rugosity
coefficient is uniquely fixed. Kennedy had suggested a general form of equation for critical velocity
Vo=CD
n
. The value of m depends upon the silt charge and silt grade. The coefficient C and the power
By A.W.
6

index n are not constant and change from site to site. The most prevalent values of C and n as worked
out by Kennedy are 0.546 and 0.64 respectively. Kennedy plotted various graphs between V
o
and
depth of flow and finally gave a formula to calculate V
o
. the formula is
64 . 0
546 . 0 D V
o
=
Kennedy also recognized that sediment size plays an important role in determining the relationship
between velocity and depth. Hence, he proposed that for the sediment sizes other than the one found in
the upper Bari Doab canal system the above equation should be modified to:
64 . 0
546 . 0 D m V
o
=
Where V
o
critical velocity / nonsilting velocity [m/s] and Y full supply depth [m] and C is a constant.
It depends on character of silt. Coarser the material greater the value of the constant and n is some
index. It also depends on the type of silt. Where m is incorporated to show the role of sediment size
CVR
V
V
m
o
= = , for course sand value of m may be taken as 1.1 to 1.2. Whereas for finer material it
may be kept 0.8 and 0.9. in addition to estimate the actual velocity he proposed the use of Chezys
equation with Kutters coefficient N equal to 0.0225 for Punjab canals. V is the actual velocity by
Chezy
Table: Typical n values for kenedy regime theort
Type of silt load in the canal water Value of n
Fine silt 0.53
Sandy silt 0.64
Limitations of Kennedys theory
1. In the absence of B/Y ratio the Kennedys theory do not provide a direct answer to fix the
channel dimension but by trial and error.
2. perfect definition of silt grade and silt charge are not given
3. complex phenomena of silt transportation is not fully accounted and only critical velocity ratio
concept is considered sufficiently
4. there is no provision to decide longitudinal slope under the scope of the theory
Design of irrigation channel by Kennedy theory
When an irrigation channel is to be designed by Kennedy theory it is essential to know FSD Q,
coefficient of regosity N, CVR m and longitudinal slope of the channel. Then using the following
three equations the channel section can be designed:
1.
64 . 0
546 . 0 D m V
o
=
2. VA Q =
3.
o
RS C V =
The procedure of designing may be outlined in the following steps
a. Assume reasonable trial full supply depth Y
b. Using equation (1) find out the value of
64 . 0
546 . 0 D m V
o
=
c. With this value of V, using equation 2 and design discharge find out V Q A =
d. Assume side slope and from the knowledge of A and Y find out the bed width B
e. Calculate R hydraulic radius
f. Using equation 3 find the value of the actual velocity V
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g. When the assumed value of Y is correct, the value of V in step f will be the same as V
o

calculated in step b, if not assume another suitable value of Y and repeat the procedure till both
values of velocity are the same.
3.4.2. Lindleys regime theory
Lindley (1919) analyzed data from stable channels of Punjab and give the following similar equations
like Kennedy for non-silting and non-scouring velocity taking Mannings n=0.025 and side slope 0.5:1.
35 . 0
57 . 0
27 . 0
57 . 0
B V
Y V
o
o
=
=

Equating the above two will give as
61 . 1
80 . 7 Y B =
The only modification by Lindley is that he expressed an equation for only B/y ratio. He also
developed equation of V
o
taking depth y and B as a function.
3.4.3. Lacey regime theory
Better and modified method was developed by Lacey. His regime theory postulates that dimension of
bed width; depth and slope of canal attain a state of equilibrium with time which is called regime state.
Lacey defined a regime channel as a stable channel transporting a minimum bed load consistent with
fully active bed. According to him, a channel will be in regime if it carries a constant discharge and it
flows uniformly in unlined incoherent alluvium of same character. Lacey also differentiated regime
between the initial and the final regime conditions of channel. The initial regime condition is attained
shortly after it is put into operation after construction and the channel begins to adjust its bed slope
either by silting or scouring although bed width is not altered. The cannel then appears to have attained
stability, but it is not actually the final state of stability and hence it still represents the initial regime
condition. Eventually continuous action of water overcomes the resistance the resistance of the banks
and sets up a condition such that the channel adjusts its complete section, then final or true regime
condition is attained.
According to Lacey, there is only one longitudinal slope at which the cahannel will carry a particular
discharge with a particular silt grade. Natural silt transporting channels havea tendency to assume
semi-elliptical section. The coarser the silt, greater the waterway of such channel with narrower depth.
the finer the silt, greater is the depth with narrow waterway as shown below:
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8


Fig: Channel section according to Laceys theory
Laceys regime equations
Lacey collected a large number of data of stable channels in Indo-Gangetic plains. Analizing the data
he gave the following equation of regime channel relating regime velocity V
o
, silting factor f,
hydraulic radius R, area A, sediment size in mm and bed slope S
o
.
Lacey plotted a graph between regime mean velocity and hydraulic mean radius and give the
relationship:
2
1
KR V
o
=
Where

K is constant
Lacey recognized the importance of silt grade in the problem and introduced a concept of function f
known as silt factor. Above equation is modified as:
Rf K V
o
=
After study and plotting of large data to justify his theory Lacey gave four fundamental equations for
design of irrigation channels.
4 . .......... .......... .......... .......... 76 . 1
3 .... .......... .......... .......... 8 . 10
2 ...... .......... .......... .......... 2 . 141
1 ...... .......... .......... .......... 639 . 0
3
1
3
2
5 2
d f
S R V
V Af
Rf V
o
o
o
=
=
=
=

Equation 3 is called regime flow equation, it may be seen that the equation doesnt contain the
rugosity coefficient. From the above fundamental Lacey equations the following equations have been
derived:
1. Relation between V-Q-f
Multiplying equation 2 by V gives
( )
6
1
2
4382 . 0 Qf V
o
= used to determine the critical velocity
2. relation between V-C-R-f
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Using equation 3

using equation 1
f
V
R
Rf V
Rf V
o
o
2
2
46 . 2
406 . 0
639 . 0
=
=
=

3. Relation between P and Q
Using equation 1
2
2
4 5
2
4
2
2 2 4
1667 . 0
2 . 141
1667 . 0
2 . 141
1667 . 0
1667 . 0
639 . 0
R
A
V
R
V
A
V
R
V
f
R f V
Rf V
o
o
o
o
=
=
=
=
=

Q P
P Q
R
A
Q
825 . 4
3 . 23
1667 . 0
2 . 141
2
2
2
=
=
=


4
1
2
1
4
1
5 . 0
5 . 0
2
2 3
3
1
3
2
5 . 35
5 . 35
) ( tan '
5 . 35
1260
1260
8 . 10
f K
R
C
fR K V taking
V
R
C
C t cons s chezy
RS
V
R
V
RS
V
R
V
S R V
S R V
o
o
o
o
=
= |

\
|
=
|

\
|
=
=
=
=
It is compared Chezys equation
Substitute equation 2
5 2
2 . 141
o
V Af =
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By using the relation between (S-Q f)
6
1
3
5
3316Q
f
S = is developed
Many more refer Irrigation and Hydraulic Structure book by S.R SAHASRABUDHE page 161-
166
Design of irrigation channel by Laceys regime theory
Thus when Q, n or C and f are known design can be done in the following steps:
a. Find out V
o
using ( )
6
1
2
4382 . 0 Qf V
o
=
b. Calculate value of R using
f
V
R
o
2
46 . 2 =
c. Calculate wetted perimeter Q P 825 . 4 =
d. Calculate the cross-sectional area Q=AV
e. Assuming side slope and calculate the full supply depth from A, P and R
f. Calculate the longitudinal slope
6
1
3
5
3316Q
f
S =

By A.W.
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By A.W.
12