Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
References: 1. Physics of Solar Cells. Jenny Nelson. Imperial College Press, 2003. 2. Clean Electricity from Photovoltaics, Volume 1. Mary D. Archer, Robert Hill. Imperial College Press, 2001. 3. Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. Antonio Luque, Steven Hegedus. Wiley, 2003. 4. Nanostructured Materials for Solar Energy Conversion. Tetsuo Soga, Elsevier Science, 2007. 5. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page).
1.2 eV
EV
2.4 eV
EC p-Cu2S n-CdS
In a survey of Fuji Keizai Co. Ltd, the market for CIGS solar cells will sharply grow from the 4.5 billion yen in fiscal 2006 to 472.5 billion yen in fiscal 2010. That is, CIGS Solar Cell Market to Expand 105 Times in 4 Years. In addition, organic photovoltaics (OPV) have attracted much attention as a promising new thin film PV technology for the future.
Doping: Because of the native defects, the conductivity of CIGS is ptype. The defect is mainly In vacancies and Cu atoms on In sites. It can be controlled by varying the Cu/In ratio during growth of the material. Other I-III-VI Semiconductors:
CIGS is deposited by two main methods: vapor co-deposition of copper, indium, gallium and selenium; and the selenization of Cu/In lms.
Reection losses are introduced by partial coverage of the front surface by nontransparent contacts or by reection at material interfaces. Buffer absorption represents one of the major losses in todays CIGS thin-lm solar cells. Thinning of the CdS or replacing it with a higher band-gap material are possible alternatives. Recombination losses are introduced by less-than-ideal collection efciencies of photo-generated carriers. The longer the wavelength, the deeper the generation of carriers, and the higher the likelihood of recombination. Improved recombination requires a longer electron diffusion length (Ln is ~ 2 m), which is similar to the grain size.
Eventually, the chemical bath deposition of CdS removes the passivating oxygen and re-establishes the beneficial type inversion of the film surface.
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CBD deposition of CdS provides complete coverage of CIGS surface, which provides protection against damage and chemical reactions resulting from the subsequent ZnO deposition process. The chemical bath removes the natural oxide from the film surface and thus re-establishes positively charged surface states and, as a consequence, the natural type inversion at the CdS/CIGS interface. The Cd ions, reacting first with the absorber surface, remove elemental Se, possibly by the formation of CdSe. The Cd ions also diffuse to a certain extent into the Cu-poor surface layer of the absorber material supporting the type inversion of the buffer/absorber interface. The VOC limitations imposed by interface recombination can be overcome by a low surface recombination velocity in addition to the type inversion of the absorber surface.
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Major companies of CIGS cells: ZSW, Germany; Energy Photovoltaics, USA; Global Solar (exible cells), USA; Angstrom Solar Centre, Sweden; Siemens, USA and Germany; Showa, Japan, etc.
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In most deposited CdTe films, hexagonally packed alternating Cd and Te layers tend to lie in the plane of the substrate (the 111 axis being perpendicular to the substrate), leading to columnar growth of crystallites. CdTe grows natively p-doped in thin-lm form, no additional doping has to be introduced.
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A typical module connected in series is made by applying three sets of separation cuts to the growing film stack during production by means of laser ablation or mechanical machining.
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First Solar Inc. is the largest manufacturer of thin film solar modules, having expanded manufacturing capacity to 735 MW in 2008. And the total capacity is expected to be more than 1 GW by the end of 2009. First Solar has achieved the lowest manufacturing cost per watt in the industry, $0.98/watt for the fourth quarter of 2008, breaking the $1 per watt price barrier.
Commercial Module Target (15%)
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1906 Pochettino discovered photoconductivity in solid anthracene 1950 Chlorophyll and related organic dyes were studied. Kearns and Calvin worked with magnesium phthalocyanine 1980 First polymer based solar cells 1986 Breakthrough: first cell with donor and acceptor by Tang 1991 First dye/dye based cell by Hiramoto 1993 First polymer/C60 based cell by Sariciftci 1995 First polymer/polymer based cell by Yu and Hall 2000 Oligomer-C60 dyads/triads as active materials by Peters and Van Hall 2001 Cell with double-cable polymers by Ramos
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Donor
Acceptor
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phthalocyanine
These organic semiconducting materials have tunable band gap and other electronic properties. And there is no lack of the resources of elements like some of the inorganic semiconductors.
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Bulk heterojunctions constitute intimate blends of organic donor and acceptor materials that allow for efficient charge separation throughout the photoactive layer and provide independent pathways to transport the charge carriers to the contacts.
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Exciton diffusion
LUMO PCBM
+
HOMO PPV
HOMO PCBM
+
HOMO PPV CT-state
LUMO PCBM
2. Charge transfer at D-A interface Because of the difference in ionization potential and electron affinity between donor and acceptor, photon induced charge transfer process takes place very rapidly (fs), which forms the metastable bound eh pairs (CT-state).
HOMO PCBM
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- +
HOMO PPV
LUMO PCBM
+ +
HOMO PCBM
+ +
HOMO PPV
HOMO PCBM
4. Transport of free charge carrier to the electrodes: Once the charge carriers have been separated, the donor material serves to transport the holes whereas the electrons travel within the acceptor material, which highly dependent on the internal phase structure of the D A blend.
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Exciton recombination
+ + + +
LUMO PCBM
HOMO PPV
Firstly, percolating paths are required to ensure that the charge carriers will not experience the fate of recombination due to trapping in dead ends on an isolated materials domain. In addition, if mobility is not sufficiently high, the carriers will not reach the contacts, and recombine instead at trap sites or remain in the device as undesirable space charges that oppose the drift of new carriers. The latter problem can occur if electron and hole mobilities are highly imbalanced, such that one species is much more mobile than the other.
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Siemens AG
Before the stability issue could be solved and higher efficiency could be achieved in solar modules, there is still long way to go for OPV to be used in niche market.
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Summary
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