Read the following description I am from Seattle, Washington. Seattle is a city in the United States.

It is near the border of Canada in the northwest corner of the USA. I live in a town called Olympia which is on the Puget Sound. I live in a house in a street in the countryside. The street is called "Bear Street" and the house is old more than 100 years old! I am an English teacher at a school in the center of the town. I like books and taking photographs. I usually have lunch at school. I usually go home by car. We have all kinds of food in Olympia. I like Italian food very much. Sometimes, I go to an Italian restaurant in Seattle. The restaurant is called "Luigi's". Italian food is great! Here are the rules for when to use "A, An or The":

a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants She has a dog. I work in a factory. an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) Can I have an apple? She is an English teacher. the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know) The car over there is fast. The teacher is very good, isn't he? The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the". I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms. I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good. DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States". He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier. They live in northern British Columbia. Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas My country borders on the Pacific Ocean DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general I like Russian tea. She likes reading books. DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport He has breakfast at home. I go to university. He comes to work by taxi.

ENGLISH ARTICLES
"A, An, The" definite and indefinite articles in English
Read the following description
I am from Winchester, Hampshire. Winchester is a city in the United Kingdom. I live in a town called Taunton which is on the River Tone. I live in a house in a quiet street in the countryside. The street is called "Hudson Street" and the house is old - more than 100 years old! I am an English lecturer at a college near the centre of the town. I like books, music and taking photographs. I usually have lunch at college. I usually go home by car. We have all kinds of food in England. I like Polish food very much. Sometimes, I go to a Polish restaurant in Bath. The restaurant is called "Magda's". Polish food is delicious!

Here are the basic rules for when to use "A, An or The":
a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants Eric has a dog. Gregory works in a factory. an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) Can I have an apple? Donata is an English teacher. the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know) The car over there is fast. The teacher is very good, isn't he? The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the". I live in a house. The house is quite old and has two bedrooms. I ate in a Vietnamese restaurant. The restaurant was not very clean. DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States". My uncle lives in Cumbria near Lake Windermere. They live in Bristol. Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas I live on a small island in the Baltic Sea. DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general I like Indian tea. Simon likes reading books about linguistics. DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport He has breakfast at home. I go to university. Magda comes to work by taxi.

EXERCISE 1 (Pre-Intermediate)

Fill in the gaps. Click on the arrow to see the answer. Don't look back at the original text! I am from Winchester, Hampshire. Winchester is city in United Kingdom. I live in town called Taunton which is on River Tone. I live in house in quiet street in the countryside. street is called "Hudson Street" and house is old - more than 100 years old! I am English lecturer at college near centre of town. I like books, music and taking photographs. I usually have lunch at college. I usually go home by car. We have all kinds of food in England. I like Polish food very much. Sometimes, I go to Polish restaurant in Bath. restaurant is called "Magda's". Polish food is delicious!

EXERCISE 2 (Elementary / Pre-Intermediate)

a, an, the, zero Click the answer button to see the correct answer. 1. Robert and Jessica went to ___ party last night. 2. Can you tell me how to get to ___ cinema from here? 3. ___ college is closed today. 4. Gregory is one of ___ strangest people I know. 5. I recommend you try ___ tomato soup at this restaurant. 6. ___ beer is good for you. 7. Would you like to see ___ film? 8. ___ apple a day keeps ___ doctor away. 9. I can't believe I failed ___ yesterday's test! 10. Do you have ___ dictionary that I can borrow?

EXERCISE 3 (Elementary / Pre-Intermediate)

Click the answer button to see the correct answer.

1. There were many dogs in the park. One dog was ___ Dalmatian. 2. Pandas and ___ tigers are both endangered animals. 3. Magda is wearing ___ blue dress with red shoes 4. Bornholm is ___ island in the Baltic Sea. 5. Christmas comes once ___ year. 6. ___ owl is __ bird. 7. The Severn is ___ river. 8. Jane went to the shop to buy ___ bread. 9. Hania broke ___ glass when she was washing-up. 10. Tom took ___ umbrella as it was raining heavilly.

EXERCISE 4 (Elementary / Pre-Intermediate)

Click the answer button to see the correct answer. 1. This is ___ easy question. 2. Stephen could you speak ___ little louder. 3. May I have your ___ phone number? 4. I have never seen ___ UFO. 5. May I ask you ___ question? 6. Astrid is ___ best teacher in our school. 7. What is ___ name of the next station? 8. My girlfriend has ___ my car today. 9. I went to ___ sea during my summer holiday.

10. Is there ___ cash machine near here?

EXERCISE 5 (Elementary)
Click the answer button to see the answer. 1. This is Joanna. She's _____ doctor. a. a b. an 2. Simon is ____ engineer. a. a b. an 3. That's Sandra. She's ___ hairdresser. a. a b. an 4. Sean Connery is ___ actor. a. a b. an 5. John is ____ electrician. a. a b. an 6. Mr. Sako is ___ teacher. a. a b. an 7. This is Shirley. She's ___ housewife. a. a b. an 8. That's Mark. He's ___ police officer. a. a b. an 9. I'm ____ student. a. a b. an 10. Kate Winslet is ____ actress. a. a

b. an

Battle for the east (3)

INTERNET-REVOLUTION, WAGED FROM ABROAD Weve seen that the revolutionary propaganda was largely waged through the social networks in the Internet. Since 2008 and throughout the first mass strike organized in Egypt, Facebook and blogs have been widely used to instigate the protest sentiments, inform about the meeting spots of demonstrators and broadcast the news from the site of action. Then an idea, how to overcome their compatriots fear to act, occurred to activists: it was necessary to collect a million of Egyptian signatures for the petition for democratic reforms. Signatures were collected at the web-site with excessive security measures and located in the USA, where the petitioners had to leave their personal data, including the passport number, telephone and e-mail. Generally speaking, this was an ideal way of creating a database. As Sherif Mansour from Freedom House put it later: The idea was to show million citizens that they have risk-free way of interfering with the politics. On the 6th of June, 2010 yet another event launched the enlivening of revolutionary activity in the Internet. Blogger Khaled Sayid used Internet from a caf in Alexandria to post a video, exposing corruption. Police arrested and tortured him GENERAL
1. Relative pronouns do two jobs at once: a) acting as subject or object of a verb b) joining two clauses together The most common are: who, whom, which and that who and whom for people and which for things. Whom is not used much in conversation and refers to an object of a verb or a preposition. That can often replace whom, who and which. After nouns referring to times and places, when and where can be used to mean at which or in which and why can be used to mean for which. Whose is a possessive relative word, referring to people and things.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronoun
Who

use
subject or object pronoun for people

example
I told you about the woman who lives next door.

Which

subject or object pronoun for animals and things

Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

Which

referring to a whole sentence

He couldnt read which surprised me.

Whose

possession for people animals and things

Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

Whom

object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)

I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.

That

subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

Definition: We use the relative pronouns to refer to a noun mentioned before and of which we are adding more information. They are used to join two or more sentences and forming in that way what we call "relative sentences". Relative pronouns Who, Whom, That, Which whoever, whomever, whichever For example:

People who speak two languages are called bilingual. * In this example, the relative "who" introduces the relative sentence "speak two languages" that describes or gives more information about the noun "people".

Relative pronouns: Subject or Object As the relative pronouns relate to another noun preceding it in the sentence, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent (a noun that precedes the pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns acts as the subject or object of the dependent clause. For example:

The chef who won the competition studied in Paris. * Here, "who" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "Chef". "Who" also acts as the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "won".

=> The dependent clause: who won the competition. => The independent clause: The chef studied in Paris.

The shirt that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket. * Here, "that" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "shirt". "That" is also the object of the verb "bought". => The dependent clause is: that Carl bought. => The independent clause: The shirt has a stain on the pocket.

Referring to people: Who, Whom, Whoever, Whomever These pronouns take a different case depending on whether the relative pronoun is a subject or an object in the dependent clause.

1.

Subjective case Use the subjective case when these relative pronouns are the subject (initiating the action) of the dependent clause: Who, Whoever For example:

Negotiations were not going smoothly between the two leaders, who made no bones
about not liking each other. * "Who" relates back to the noun "leaders" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "made". Most workers, whoever was not employed by the auto manufacturer, toiled at one of the millions of little minnow companies. * "Whoever" relates back to the noun "workers" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "was employed". Objective case Use the objective case when these relative pronouns are the object (receiving the action) of the dependent clause: Whom, Whomever For example:

This is the approach taken by journalists, whom some consider to be objective.

* "Whom" relates back to the noun "journalists" and is the object of the verb "consider". The subject of the dependent clause is "some".

The three representatives, whomever the committee chooses, should be at the

meeting tomorrow. * "Whomever" relates back to the noun representatives and is the object of the verb "chooses". The subject of the dependent clause is "Committee". Referring to a place, thing or idea: Which, That When using relative pronouns for places, things or ideas, rather than determining case, the writer must decide whether the information in the dependent clause is essential to the meaning of the independent clause or simply additional information. When information is critical to the understanding of the main clause, use That as the appropriate relative pronoun and do not set the information off by commas. For example:

Russian generals have delivered a message that is difficult to ignore. * "That" relates back to the noun "message" and is necessary for the reader to know what "message" the sentence is about.

There is another factor that obviously boosts the reputation of both of these men. * "That" relates back to the noun "factor" and is necessary for the reader to know what "factor" the sentence is about.

When information is not critical to the understanding of the main clause, use "Which" as the appropriate relative pronoun and set the information off by commas. For example:

The toughest intramural fight of all for Clinton was the North American Free Trade Agreement, which he undertook a full year before the 1994 election. * "Which" relates back to the noun "agreement" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "agreement" the sentence is about.

Clinton refused to head toward the center on affirmative action and abortion, which are the two most sacred issues to the traditional liberal wing of the party. * "Wich" relates back to the noun "affirmative action and abortion" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "affirmative action and abortion" the sentence is about.

When referring to more than one place, thing or idea use these relative pronouns: Whatever, Whichever For example:

The three approaches, whichever works is fine, produce a more ambiguous picture of a man. * "Whichever" relates to the noun "approaches" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Any excessive profits, whatever exceeded accepted limits, would attract the notice of representatives. * "Whatever" relates to the noun "profits" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Relative pronouns can cause trouble in English, specially when they are in unusual forms, such as whom or whose. And theres another problem: when to use which

and when to use that? Here are some clear guidelines to help you.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The relative pronoun as subject The relative pronoun as object The relative pronoun as a possessive Relative clauses starting with a preposition More complex structures Defining and non-defining relatives, and punctuation. Relative clauses which qualify a whole sentence, not just a noun.
(Extra information for French-speakers)

1. The relative pronoun as subject 1.1. When the relative pronoun is subject of a clause and refers to a human, the relative pronoun who is generally used. Examples: The man who lives next door is 99. I know someone who eats red hot chilli peppers. Sometimes, who is replaced by that, especially in American English and in spoken

language: The boy that lost his watch was careless. However, The boy who lost his watch was careless. is also quite possible. After the antecedent those, who is almost always required: Those who can swim should go first. 1.2. If the relative is the subject of a clause and refers to an inanimate antecedent, which or that must be used. The book thats on the table is mine. The book which is on the table is mine.
1.3. IMPORTANT:

Omission: As subject of a clause, the relative pronoun can never be omitted. However, the relative clause can be completely omitted: The book is on the table is mine is quite impossible, but The book on the table is mine is perfectly acceptable.

2. The relative pronoun as object: When the relative pronoun is the direct object of the clause, and refers to a human, the pronoun used is either whom or that. Examples: The man whom I saw yesterday is 99. The man that I saw yesterday is 99. Alternatively, the relative can be omitted, particularly in spoken language: The man I saw yesterday is 99.
Whom is not used very often: that, or omission of the relative pronoun, are much more

common. When an inanimate object is referred to, the same rules apply, except that whom is never used: it is replaced by which. Example: The book that I was reading was very interesting, or The book which I was reading was very interesting, or The book I was reading was very interesting are all possible Omission: when it is the object of the relative clause, the relative pronoun can often be omitted, particularly in written English.
3. The relative pronoun as a possessive

Whose is required with both animate and inanimate antecedents: it is the only derivative of who which can refer to animates and inanimates: Examples: I know someone whose sister is a nurse.

The man whose car I borrowed is very rich. I chose the set whose price was reduced.

4. Relative clauses starting with a prepositon: Note how to form relative clauses after prepositions: The man with whom I was talking was angry. The chair on which I sat down collapsed. 5. More complex structures: 5.1 Possession + propositon: The player on whose skills the match most depended, was the goalkeeper. 5.2. Selective possession The caf, most of whose customers had deserted it, had to close. The writer, the first of whose books had been a bestseller, was a coal miner. 6. Defining and non-defining relatives. 6.1. A "Defining" relative clause is one which is essential for the understanding of a statement. Examples: Protestors who smash windows will be arrested. In this example, it is clear that "all protestors who smash windows" will be arrested. The word "protestors" in this example is restricted by the relative clause that defines it Commas are not required before and after the relative clause.
6.2. In a non-defining relative clause, the relative clause is not essential for an understanding of the sentence: Protestors, who are mostly aged under 30, want to express an opinion. In this example, the question of age is not an essential bit of information. The relative clause can be omitted without making the sentence meaningless. In cases like this, commas are usually required before and after the relative clause. Compare these two examples: 6.1. People who eat too much tend to have poorer health. 6.2. Sportsmen, who pay attention to their diet, are not usually over-weight.

7: Relative clauses which qualify a whole sentence, not just a noun:

The relative clause is introduced by which, never that or what. He drank too much, which is why he was sick. It was raining yesterday, which was rather a pity.

1) This is the boy who had an accident.

2) Yesterday I saw a car which was really old. 3) Mandy is the girl x I met on Friday. 4) I haven't seen Frank, whose brother is five, for a long time now. 5) The robber stole the car x the lady parked in front of the supermarket. 6) This is the man whose house is on fire. 7) Can I talk to the girl who is sitting on the bench? 8) The book x you gave me is great. 9) She likes hamburgers which are hot. 10) Bill Clinton, who was President of the USA, has only one daughter.

Relative clauses exercises (intermediate -)

www.vivquarry.com Join the following sentences to make one sentence using a relative pronoun when necessary. If the relative pronoun is unnecessary, put it in brackets. You may sometimes have to change the word order or change 'a' into 'the'. There's the boy. He broke the window. _______________________________ The film star gave a party. It cost $10,000. _______________________________ That's the palace. The Queen lives in it. _______________________________ You met a man at the party. He is a famous film star. man..._______________________________ My friend came to the party. He's a policeman. _______________________________ There are the policemen. They caught the thief. _______________________________ What's the name of the lady? She was wearing the blue dress. _______________________________ I gave her a watch. It stopped after two days. _______________________________ My car was very expensive. It's a Mercedes. _______________________________ The

You're reading a book. I wanted to read it. _______________________________ The Red Lion is a pub. We met in it for a drink. _______________________________ There's someone at the door. He wants to speak to George. _______________________________ Here are the letters. They arrived this morning. _______________________________ I met Mr Da Silva. He is President of Brazil. _______________________________ It's very spicy food. I don't like it. _______________________________ That's the house. I was born in it. _______________________________ That's the dictionary. Bill gave it to me for Christmas. _______________________________ Where is the lady? She ordered fish. _______________________________ Those are the cars. They only take unleaded petrol. _______________________________ The children went to New York. They speak English. _______________________________ Do you know the children? They live in that house. _______________________________ Do you like the people. Sarah invited them to her party. _______________________________ The clothes come from C&A. They are good quality

Test Relative Pronouns

Choose the best answer.

1. This is the school I used to study. 2. This test is for students native language is not English. 3. The students lost his bag is waiting in the office. 4. The house they live needs repairing. 5. Children eat a lot of candy often get bad teeth. 6. The girl pen you borrowed neds it not. 7. Go and find the guests arrived here yesterday. 8. Look at the horses are drinking in the river. 9. The student father is sick does not come to school today. 10. I ate all the cake you gave me. 11. My brother Tom hates fishing, will stay at home. 12. A man name I have forgotten, came to see you yesterday. 13. I put everything in my suitcase, is under my bed. 14. The teacher, every student is afraid of, is really very nice. 15.This is the town I was born.

(1) The books, I'd ordered over the internet, took nearly three weeks to arrive. (2) The books I'd ordered from a bookshop arrived the following week. (3) My parents, were born in the north of England, moved to London to find work.

(4) The man lives upstairs is always playing music when I'm trying to get to sleep. (5) The building I live in was built in the 1920s. (6) The building I live was built in the 1920s. (7) The car's making a funny noise again, means we'll have to get someone to look at it. (8) The employee to you refer is no longer working for this company. (9) Do you remember the name of the man car you crashed into? (10) Have you any idea they were arguing about? (11) Have you any idea they were arguing? (12) The hotel we stayed was very good for the price.

Combine the sentences using a relative clause. Use relatvie pronouns only where necessary. Note that you have to use commas in some of the sentences.

A holiday in Scotland
1. We spent our holiday in Scotland last year. Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. Last year we 2. People live in Scotland. They are called Scots. The people 3. We first went to Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland. We first 4. Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories. Arthur Conan Doyle 5. Then we visited a lake. It is in the Highlands. The lake 6. Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster. Loch Ness 7. There we met an old man. He told us that he had seen Nessie. An old man

8. We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William. We then 9. The mountain is the highest mountain in Great Britain. It is called Ben Nevis. The mountain 10. I sent you a postcard. It was written on the summit of Ben Nevis. The postcard

Relative pronouns: exercise

February 15, 2011 Fill in the blanks with appropriate relative pronouns. Each question is followed by four suggested answers. Choose the most appropriate one. 1. We all trust people .. speak the truth. a) who b) whom c) which d) that 2. He . does his best shall be rewarded. a) that b) who c) which d) whom 3. I dont understand you mean. a) what b) which c) that d) whose 4. She has gone to Bangalore, is her birth place. a) which b) that c) who d) whom 5. You should learn to give away you do not need. a) which b) what

c) that d) whose 6. There is no one has not lost a dear one. a) whom b) who c) which d) that 7. You get .. you deserve. a) that b) what c) which d) whose 8. He is a person . you can trust. a) who b) whom c) what d) that 9. The letter . he sent never reached me. a) which b) that c) whom d) who 10. He treats others with kindness will be treated with kindness.

relatives pronouns (who, which, that...)

relatives pronouns (who, which, that...)

English exercise "relatives pronouns (who, which, that...)" created by anonyme with The test builder Click here to see the current stats of this English test [Save] [Load] [?]

1. An aeroplane is a machine flies. 2. The people work in the house are very friendly. 3. A salesman is a man works in a shop. 4. They live in the house windows are broken. 5. My wife's mother, I haven't seen for several years, speaks too much. 6. I don't like the town you work. 7. He is the only American has swum..... 8. My wife, lives in New York, has just written me a letter. 9. The girl lives next door is very boring. 10. This is the lady husband died last year.

For each sentence, choose the best word or phrase to complete the gap from the choices below.

1.

I think people

are violent to children should go to prison for a long time.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The man All my friends Washington

I saw going into the bank was carrying a gun in his hand. are people names start with letters in the first half of the alphabet. , is the capital of the United States, is actually quite a small city. I was born since I was ten years old.

I haven't been back to the town The first thing

I can remember was living in London with my aunt. That's my earliest memory. he lives in now. He's still wants to go back to his home town in

He has never really liked the city

Poland.

8. 9.

Do you remember the time All the members of our class

I was just starting to play the guitar? Ah, those were the days. don't smoke have caught colds. That just shows that smoking is

good for you.

10. 11. 12.

Let me explain the reason The teacher

we sometimes take over three hours to finish.

you went on the trip to Cardiff with us is going to take our class today. this e-mail is addressed, opening the document will constitute a

If you are not the person to

criminal offence.

The answers to following relative pronouns exercises are shown in a separate page when you "show answers" button. If you feel the need to review pronouns, click on Pronouns link to read the material and refresh your memory. A. Complete the exercise with who,whom,whose or where. 1. What's the name of the man car you borrowed? 2. A cemetery is a place people are buried. 3. A pacifist is a person believes that all wars are wrong. 4. An orphan is a child parents are dead. 5. The place we spent our holidays was really beautiful.

6. This school is only for children first language is not English. 7. I don't know the name of the woman to I spoke on the phone.

B. Complete the following exercise with correct relative pronouns, choosing from the items given. 1. Jake and Jessica Carter, (that / who) got married about a year ago, recently bought a new house. 2. The neighborhood (that / in which) they have been living is a somewhat dangerous one. 3. The neighborhood (that / who) they are moving into is much safer. 4. Their new house, (that / which) they bought quite cheaply, does need some fixing up. 5. However, they will be receiving some help from their neighbors, most of (who / whom) they like. 6. The Flintstones (who / whom) live next door to them, have volunteered to lend their tools. 7. The Jetsons (who / whom) live across the street from Jake and Jessica, have promised to help them put in a new lawn. 8. The Flintstones, (who / whose) daughter is the same age as Mackenzie, Jake and Jessica's daughter, are helping Mackenzie make new friends. 9. Jessica, (that / who) works for a county hospital, will still have to commute to work. 10.Jake, (whom / whose) company is nearby, will be able to walk to work.

Join together each of the following pairs of sentences by means of a relative pronoun.

1. I met a man. He had just lost his job. 2. You need something. I will give you that. 3. We got into a train. I was crowded. 4. This is my friend. I was speaking of him. 5. The officer has informed the police. His car was stolen. 6. The man betrayed me. I trusted him. 7. The boy was very happy. He won a prize. 8. Give me the book. The book is on the table. 9. We praised John. His performance was remarkable. 10. The boys came late. They were punished. 11. You bought a book. Show me the book. 12. You are powerful. You should be kind. 13. They caught the man. He was a thief. 14. The roof of the house was damaged. The house has now been repaired. 15. You are treacherous. You will be punished. 16. Charges have been leveled against him. Bribery is one of them.

Modals, Auxiliaries
be, have

and do can be auxiliaries und full verbs.

Modals are: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would and need (need can be a full verb, too).
We can play football. We could play football. We may play football. We might play football. We must play football.

We mustn't play football. We needn't play football. We ought to play football. We shall play football. We should play football. We will play football. We would play football. NOTE: 1) Do not use modals for things which happen definitely. 2) They do not have an -s in the 3rd person singular. 3) Questions are formed without do/does/did. 4) It follows a full verb in the infinitive. 5) There are no past forms (except could and would). 6) When you use the past particple, you tell about things which did not happen in the past. The sun rises in the East. He can play football. Can he speak Spanish? They must read the book. He was allowed to watch the film. You should have told me.

FORM positive long form can could may might ought to -shall should will would contracted form ------'ll 'd 'll 'd negative long form cannot could not may not might not ought not to need not shall not -will not would not contracted form can't couldn't --oughtn't to needn't shan't shouldn't won't wouldn't

English modal verb

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

English grammar series

English grammar

Contraction Disputes in English grammar English compound English honorifics English personal pronouns English plural English relative clauses English verbs
o o

English irregular verbs English modal verb

Gender in English This box: view talk edit

See also: Modal verb In the English language, a modal verb is a type of auxiliary verb. The key way to identify a modal verb is by its defectiveness (they have neither participles nor infinitives). In addition, modal verbs do not take the inflection -s or -es in the third person singular, unlike other verbs. The modal verbs in English are as follows, paired as present and preterite forms.

shall and should will and would may and might can and could mote (Archaic) and must

Note that use of the preterite forms does not necessarily refer to past time. The following have also been categorized by some as modal verbs:[1]:p. 33;[2]

ought (to) had better dare need

Note that dare and need are much more commonly used as non-modal verbs, taking -s in the third person singular and having an infinitive and past and present participles. Further, some authors[3]:pp.3,8 do not mention had better and explicitly reject ought (to) on the grounds that the main verb infinitive is required to include the particle to. The following are not modal verbs although they have some similar characteristics:

used to

do be going to have to

CONTENTS
[hide]

1 Syntax 2 Replacement for defective forms 3 Reduction of pronunciation 4 Types of usage of some preterite forms o 4.1 Past time use o 4.2 Conditional use o 4.3 Subjunctive use 5 Usage of specific modal verbs o 5.1 Shall and will o 5.2 Should o 5.3 Would o 5.4 May and might o 5.5 Can and could o 5.6 Must o 5.7 Ought to and had better o 5.8 Dare and need 6 Words with a similar function to the modal verbs o 6.1 Used to o 6.2 Do o 6.3 Going to o 6.4 Have to 7 Double modal 8 Comparison with other Germanic languages 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[EDIT] SYNTAX
If a verb is preceded by multiple auxiliary verbs including a modal, as in "it could have been eaten," the modal will always appear before the other auxiliary verbs. A verb or auxiliary verb following a modal always appears in its basic form (for example, "could have gone" instead of "could had gone" or "could has gone", and "He could walk" rather than "he could walks").

[EDIT] REPLACEMENT FOR DEFECTIVE FORMS

Replacements for defective modals Modal Equivalent can be able to must have to will, shall (future) be going to

should, ought to

be supposed to

All English modal auxiliaries are defective in that they cannot be conjugated throughout the full range of forms that are normal for a verb. For example, none of the modal auxiliaries have infinitives; hence it is impossible to say e.g. "*I want to can speak French". In these circumstances, alternative expressions are used to replace the modal, e.g. "I want to be able to speak French."

[EDIT] REDUCTION OF PRONUNCIATION

In fast speech, a minor word following a modal is often pronounced in a diminished way: for example, "oughtta" /t/ for "ought to", "shoulda" /d/ for "should have", "coulda" /kd/ for "could have", "musta" /mst/ for "must have", etc.

[EDIT] TYPES OF USAGE OF SOME PRETERITE FORMS

[edit] Past time use

Some preterite forms may be used when referring to situations seen from the perspective of an earlier time. For example, would is originally the past tense of will, and it can still be used in that sense. The statement "People think that we will all be driving hovercars by the year 2000", spoken in the 1960s, can be represented after 2000 by replacing the verbs in italics by the appropriate preterite forms: "In the 1960s, people thought we would all be driving hovercars by the year 2000." Likewise, "I can do that" may become "I could do that when I was younger, but not anymore."

[edit] Conditional use

The preterite forms can also be used in the apodosis (the then clause) in the conditional mood, such as in counterfactual conditionals: "If you bought a bus pass, you could catch as many buses as you liked without worrying about the cost of the fares." "If he were more polite, he might / would be better liked." In each of these cases, the "if" clause has present time reference despite the past subjunctive form of its verb, indicating something contrary to fact, and the main clause has present / future time reference. The time reference of the conditional can be shifted back to the past using the modal + "have" construction, in which case the if clause takes the pluperfect subjunctive: "If they had wanted to do it, they would have done it by now." There is not always an explicit protasis ("if" clause) in this use: "Someone who likes red and hates yellow would probably prefer strawberries to bananas" means the same as "If someone who liked red and hated yellow were offered a choice of fruit, he or she would probably prefer strawberries to bananas." Similarly, "I could help you with your work" gives a more tentative sense of ability to help than, say, "I can help you with your work" would; the implied protasis could, depending on the context, be along the lines of "if I wanted to help" or "if you wanted me to help".

[edit] Subjunctive use

The preterite forms would and could can be used as subjunctive forms of will and can respectively, appearing in counterfactual dependent clauses. For example, the indicative will as in He will come tomorrow is replaced by the subjunctive form would as in I wish that he would

come tomorrow. Likewise, the indicative can as in He can do it now is replaced by the subjunctive form could as in I wish that he could do it now. The preterite form should can be used as the subjunctive form of shall in the context of doubtful conditional statements about the future. For example, the indicative shall in I shall go there is replaced by the subjunctive form in If I should go there, ...."

[EDIT] USAGE OF SPECIFIC MODAL VERBS

[edit] Shall and will

See also: Shall and will Shall is used in many of the same senses as will, though not all dialects use shall. In prescriptive English usage, shall in the first person, singular or plural, indicates mere futurity, but in other persons shows an order, command or prophecy: "Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!" Likewise, will generally indicates futurity in the second and third persons but willingness/determination in the first person. In dialects that seldom use shall, will has a number of different uses[4]:pp.86-97;[5]:pp. 21, 47-48: It can express aspect alone, without implying futurity: In "He will make mistakes, won't he?", the reference is to a tendency in the past, present, and future and as such expresses habitual aspect.

It can express probability in the present time, as in "That will be John at the door", or obligation, as in "You will do it right now".

It can express both intention and futurity, as in "I will do it." It can express futurity: "The sun will die in a few billion years."

Shall is also used in legal and engineering language to write firm laws and specifications as in these examples: "Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of not less than three years nor more than seven years," and "The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within its specifications over a temperature range of 0 degrees Celsius to 70 degrees Celsius." In both cases, in accordance with prescriptive usage, shall is used in the third person to express determination on the part of the speaker. The time reference of a shall or will statement can be shifted from the future to a time prior to a specified time in the future by using shall / will + have + past participle of main verb, as in Tomorrow at 5:00 I will have already arrived.

[edit] Should
Should is commonly used, even in dialects where shall is not. The negation is "should not" (or the contraction "shouldn't"). Should can describe an ideal behaviour or occurrence and imparts a normative meaning to the sentence; for example, "You should never lie" means roughly, "If you always behaved perfectly, you would never lie", so obligation. The sentence "If this works, you should not feel a

thing" means roughly, "I hope this will work. If it does, you will not feel a thing", so probability is being expressed. In dialects that use shall commonly, however, this restriction does not apply; for example, a speaker of such a dialect might say, "If I failed that test, I think I should cry," meaning the same thing as, "If I failed that test, I think I would cry"; here the use of should is for conditionality. In some dialects, it is common to replace the subjunctive mood with the modal auxiliary should: "It is important that the law should be passed" (where other dialects would say, "It is important that the law be passed"); likewise "If it should happen, we are prepared for it" or "Should it happen, we are prepared for it" (where early Modern English would say, "If it happen, we are prepared for it," and many dialects of today would say "If it happens, we are prepared for it" or would use the subjunctive "If it were to happen, we would be prepared for it."). The time reference of a should statement can be shifted from the present or future to the past by using should + have + past participle of main verb, as in "I should have done that yesterday" (duty) or, less commonly, "It should have happened by yesterday" (high likelihood).

[edit] Would
The contracted form of would is 'd as in "I'd go if I could". The negation is either would not or wouldn't. As indicated above, would can be used for the conditional mood in main clauses having a counterfactual meaning: "I would go if I could (but I can't)". Would can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal or polite: for example, "I would like a glass of water" compared with "I want a glass of water"; and "Would you get me a glass of water?" compared with the bare "Get me a glass of water." It is also used to make a hypothetical statement about a doubtful future situation even if it is not known to be counterfactual: "If we went to Keri Keri for Easter, that would be nice. The time reference of a counterfactional conditional can be shifted from the present / future to the past by using the would + have + past participle construction, as in "I would have done it yesterday if I had seen the opportunity". This construction is known as the conditional perfect. Would can also be used for the imperfective aspect in past time. In the sentence "Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school...." "would" signifies not the conditional mood, but rather, repeated past actions in the imperfective aspect (specifically, habitual aspect)[6][7] and one must use care when translating to other languages. Furthermore, would can be used to shift the time of perspective of a future event from the present to the past: "In 1982 I knew that in 1986 I would graduate from college." The meaning of the negated "would" form depends on the particular usage of "would". In its conditional usage, the main verb is negated: "I would not go even if I could" means "I would not-go..." = "I would refrain from going...." However, in the future-of-the-past form, "In 1982 I knew that I would not graduate in 1986" means "...I not-would graduate..." = "...It is not that I would graduate...." Likewise, in the past habitual form, "Back then I would not eat early" does not mean "...I would not-eat early" = "...I would fast early" but rather means "...I not-would eat

early" = "...it is not that I would eat early...." In the latter two examples either the modal or the entire verb phrase is being negated.

[edit] May and might

May and might do not have common negative contractions (equivalents to shan't, won't, can't, couldn't etc.), although mightn't can occur in asking questions. ("Mightn't I come in if I took my muddy boots off?" as a reply to "Don't come in here! You'll get the floor dirty!") Both forms can be used to express a present time possibility or uncertainty ("That may be."). Might and could can also be used in this sense with no past time meaning, although may conveys less hesitance (a somewhat higher probability) than do might and could. When used in the perfect aspect, "may have" is used to indicate a lack of knowledge about events in the past, and "might have" is used for possibilities that did not occur but could have in other circumstances, in a similar way to other conditional statements.

"She may have eaten cake, if it was there." (Possibly it was there, and possibly she ate

it.) "She might have eaten cake, if it hadn't been gone". (But it was gone; her eating cake in the past was contingent on the untrue circumstance of its not being gone.)

May is also used to express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: "He may be taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger" may mean roughly, "While it is true that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger." (However, it may also mean, "I am not sure whether he is taller than I am, but I am sure that he is not stronger.") This is the meaning in the phrase "Be that as it may." Might can be used in this sense as well. May or might can be used in the first person to express that future actions are being considered. "I may/might go to the mall later" means that the speaker is thinking about going to the mall; as such it means the same thing as maybe will. May and might can indicate presently given permission and presently given mild permission, respectively, for present or future actions: "You may go now", "You might go now if you feel like it." May or might can be used in a question to ask for permission. One who is saying "May I use your phone? is asking for permission to use the phone of the person being spoken to. "Can" or "could" can be used instead, although formal American English prefers "may". In both cases the preterite form is viewed as more hesitant or polite. For the sense of permission (as opposed to possibility), there is no past form for may: "He may have done it" unambiguously means "Maybe he did it", and not "He had permission to do it". However, "He might have done it" could be interpreted as either "There is a slight possibility that he did it" or "It would have been okay for him to do it". The meaning of the negated "may" or "might" form depends on the usage of the modal. When possibility is indicated, the main verb is negated: "That may/might not be" means "That may/might not-be" = "That may fail to be true." But when permission is being expressed, the modal or the entire verb phrase is negated: "You may not go now" does not mean "You may not-go now" = "You may stay now", but rather means "You not-may go now" = "You are

forbidden to go now." Sometimes, though, the main verb is negated by putting stress on both "not" and the main verb: "You may go or not go, whichever you wish."

[edit] Can and could

The negation of can is the single word "cannot", occasionally written as two words "can not"[8] or the contraction "can't". The negation of could is "could not", or "couldn't". Can is used to express ability. "I can speak English" means "I am able to speak English", or "I know how to speak English". The past form for this meaning is as in "Twenty years ago I could speak [was able to speak] English". Can or could is also used to express that some state of affairs is presently possible, without referring to the ability of a person to do something: "There can be a very strong rivalry between siblings" can have the same meaning as "There is sometimes a very strong rivalry between siblings"; and "That can happen" is similar in meaning to "That could happen" except that using could rather than can expresses more doubt. Cannot and can't can be used to express beliefs about situations: "That can't be true" expresses strong disbelief"; but in the affirmative with doubt, could must be used, as in "That could be true". Both can and could can be used to make requests: "Can you pass me the cheese?" means "Please pass me the cheese". Could can be used in the same way but indicates greater politeness. Informally, can is frequently used to mean may in the sense of permission: "You can go now." The form could can indicate either ability in the past (= was able to) ("I could swim when I was five years old"), permission in the past (= was permitted to) ("My mother said that I could go swimming"), possibility in the present (=maybe) ("It could be raining now"), or conditional ability in the present (= would be able to) ("I could do it if you would let me"). The past counterpart of the use of could to mean present conditional ability ("I could pass that test now (if I were to take it now)") is the use of could + have + past participle, as in "I could have passed that test yesterday (if I had taken it yesterday)". The negative forms virtually always negate the modal or entire verb phrase, and never just the main verb: "I cannot speak English" = "I am not able to speak English"; "You cannot go now" = "You are not allowed to go now"; "He could not do that" implying either permission or ability means "He was not allowed/able to do that." Rarely, the main verb is negated by putting stress on "not" and the main verb: "I could not do that, but I'm going to do it anyway." Can is only used in a few situations in the perfect aspect: With negative polarity: "She can't have finished yet." (The speaker believes that she has not finished.)

[edit] Must

Must has no corresponding preterite form. The negative form when the meaning is obligation is "must not" or "mustn't", and the negative form when the meaning is near-certainty is "must not". An archaic variant is the word mote, as used in the expression "so mote it be". Must and have to are used to express that something is obligatory ("He must leave"; "He has to leave"). Must can be used to express a prohibition such as "You must not smoke in here", or a resolution such as "I mustn't make that mistake again". There is a distinction between "must" and "have to" in the negative forms: "must not" negates the main verb, while "do not have to" negates "have to". In the sentence "You must not go" = "You must not-go", it is being expressed that it is obligatory for the person being spoken to not go; whereas in the sentence "You do not have to go" it is being expressed that it is not obligatory for the person to go. Must and have to can also be used to express strongly held beliefs (the epistemic rather than deontic use), such as in "It must be here somewhere" or "It has to be here somewhere", with the same meaning as "I believe that it's very likely that it is here somewhere." There is a past form for the sense of high probability ("He must have done that" = "He very probably did that"), but there is no past tense form for the sense of obligation ("He must have done that" cannot be understood as "He had to do that" = "He was required to do that").

[edit] Ought to and had better

Ought to and had better are used to express an ideal behavior or occurrence or suggested obligation, in a similar way to should. The negations are, respectively, ought not to (or rarely, oughtn't to) and had better not. The "had" in "had better" can be contracted, such as "You'd better shut up." In informal American usage, the had in had better is sometimes omitted. The negative forms negate the main verb: "You ought not to do that" = "You ought to refrain from doing that"; "You'd better not do that" = "You'd better refrain from doing that." In addition, ought to, like should, can be used to express relatively high probability, as in "It ought to rain today." The time reference of an ought to statement can be shifted from the present or future to the past by using ought to + have + past participle of main verb, as in "I ought to have done that yesterday" (duty) or, less commonly, "It ought to have happened by yesterday" (high likelihood).

[edit] Dare and need

Dare and need are not commonly used as auxiliaries nowadays, but formerly they both were. Neither is used in affirmative declarative sentences. An example in an exclamation is "How dare he!", expressing willingness in the face of fear or contrary obligation. The interrogative form "Dare he do it?" or "Need he do it?" is equivalent to the non-auxiliary form "Does he dare to do it?" or "Does he need to do it?"; need, of course, expresses necessity. In a negative context "He dare not do it" is equivalent to "He does not dare to do it", while "He need not do it" is equivalent to "He does not need to do it". In both cases it is the modal or entire verb phrase, rather than the main verb, that is being negated.

However, in the sentence "He does not dare to lose weight" or "He needs to lose weight," dare or need is not being used as an auxiliary, as (1) it takes the full infinitive "to lose" as the head of the verb phrase rather than the bare infinitive "lose" that occurs in a sentence like "He can lose weight", (2) it is conjugated in the third person singular, and (3) it can take the auxiliary "does". In its use as a modal auxiliary in the negative, need has a form using "have" that shifts the time reference to the past ("he need not have done that"); alternatively, the non-modal form can be substituted, as in "He needed to not do that". However, the modal "dare" cannot be given a past time meaning using "have" (one cannot say "He dare not have done that"); instead, the nonmodal form must be substituted, as in "He did not dare to do that").

[EDIT] WORDS WITH A SIMILAR FUNCTION TO THE MODAL VERBS

[edit] Used to
Used to is used to express past states or past actions that were habitual but which are no longer. For example, "I used to go to college" suggests that the speaker no longer goes to college. Constructions negating the main verb exist in expressions such as "She used to not like me", or if the speaker is trying to avoid the split infinitive, "She used not to like me". In Standard American English, although not the most formal style, used to can follow did not (or didn't), as in "She didn't use to like me". Here it is the entire verb form "used to like" that is being negated, to mean "It's not that she used to like me."

[edit] Do
As an auxiliary, do is essentially a "dummy"; that is, it does not generally affect the meaning. It is used to form questions and negations when no other auxiliary is present: "Do you want to do it?", "I do not (don't) want to do it." This particular use of do, known as do-support, is attested from around 1400. It is also sometimes used for emphasis: "I do understand your concern, but I do not think that will happen." Also, do sometimes acts as a pro-verb: "I enjoy it, I really do [enjoy it], but I am not good at it." (Other auxiliaries do this as well: "I can do it, I really can [do it], it just takes me longer"; but it bears particular note that in the case of do, it is often used as a pro-verb when it would be absent if the verb were present.) Because it does not affect the meaning of its verb as regards the attitude of the speaker toward the action, it is not a modal auxiliary. In a sense, it indicates the lack of a modal auxiliary. (Do is also different in that it has a distinct third-person singular form, does, and in that its past tense, did, is used exactly as a past tense, not as a more general remote form).

[edit] Going to
Am/is/are/was/were going to is used in some of the same situations as is will: specifically, to indicate imminent futurity ("It's going to rain"), distant futurity ("The sun is going to die eventually"), intention ("I was going to do that, but I forgot"), or a combination of futurity and intentionality ("I'm going to do it tomorrow"). It always implies prospective aspect, combining the present (or past when used with was/were) focus in the main verb am/is/are/was/were going with the futurity of the second verb. Thus, for example, "It's going to rain" combines a present

viewpoint of the situation with a description of the future. This feature is analogous to the retrospective aspect of the English present perfect have/has + VERB + -ed, in which past action is presented from the viewpoint of the present. Am/is/are/was/were going to is not a modal because (1) it has an infinitive form to go, and (2) it requires a helping verb, which conjugates by person/number.

[edit] Have to
Have to is used in a similar way to must, as discussed above, except that have to is used either with an impersonal necessity (such as in "It has to be cloudy for it to rain") or a personal obligation ("I have to go to the dentist") while must is used primarily with personal obligations ("I must go to the dentist"). Have to can be used for an ongoing obligation, such as "he has to be careful". Have to is not a modal verb because (1) it has an infinitive form (to have [to]), and (2) it conjugates in the third person singular ("He has to do it").

[EDIT] DOUBLE MODAL

In standard English usage, it is considered incorrect to use more than one modal verb consecutively, as modals are followed by an infinitive, which they themselves lack. They can only be combined with non-modal constructions that have a modal function, such as have to, which in spite of its function is not a modal verb. Thus, might have to is acceptable, but might must is not, even though must and have to can normally be used interchangeably. A greater variety of double modals appears in some regional dialects. In Southern American English, for example, phrases such as might could or ought to should are sometimes used in conversation.[9][10] The double modal may sometimes be redundant, as in "I ought to should do something about it", where ought to and should are synonymous and either one could be removed from the sentence. In other double modals, the two modal verbs convey different meanings, such as "I might could do something about it tomorrow", where could indicates the ability to do something and might shows uncertaintly about that ability. These kinds of double modal phrases are not regarded as standard,[9] although a combination of a modal with a modal-like construction may be used instead. "I might could do something about it" is more often expressed as "I might be able to do something about it", which is considered more standard. Similarly used to could, which appears for example in country singer Bill Carlisle's 1951 song "Too Old to Cut the Mustard": I used to could jump just like a deer, But now I need a new landing gear. I used to could jump a picket fence, But now I'm lucky if I jump an inch.[11] is usually expressed as used to be able to. Double modals can also be avoided by replacing one of the modal verbs with an appropriate adverb, such as using probably could or might possibly in place of might could.[10] Double modals also occur in the closely related Germanic language Scots

Basic Modals
Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context. The most common modal auxiliaries in English are: can may could should

might will

must would

Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences:

I pay my taxes. I can pay my taxes. General declaration of fact. Paying taxes is something I normally do. Expresses ability. I have the means (funds) to pay.

I might pay my taxes. Expresses possibility, but not certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I won't.

I will pay my taxes. I should pay my taxes.

Expresses future intent. I resolve to do it at some later time. Expresses mild obligation. It is required, and I expect to comply.

I could pay my taxes. Expresses possibility. If I have nothing else to do with the money, I might pay taxes. I would pay my taxes. (In this case), expresses reservation. If I had the money (but I don't). . . I must pay my taxes. Expresses strong obligation. I am required and have to comply.

Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb.
He must to finish his homework. He must finish his homework. Jack could heard the bell. Jack could hear the bell. Penny will going to the movie. Penny will go to the movie. WRONG RIGHT WRONG RIGHT WRONG RIGHT

There are many ways to make requests in English. The most common involves using the imperative and modals. See the examples below:

Using the Imperative

The imperative is the simple form of the verb. The subject of an imperative sentence is understood as "you" although it is usually not spoken. Open the door. Will you help me? Pick up your toys. Please help me. (You) open the door. Yes, I will (help you). (You) pick up your toys. (You) please help me.

The imperative is often used by persons of authority when speaking to subordinates, e.g. parent to child.

Using Modals
To show respect and politeness, most people use modal expressions when making requests. For example:

Will you...? Would you...? Would you please...? Could you (please)...? Could you possibly...? Would you kindly...? Would you mind (Ving )...? Would you be so kind as to...?

Will you open the door for me? Would you open the door for me? Would you please open the door (for me)? Could you (please)...? Could you (please) open the door? Could you possibly open the door? Would you kindly open the door? Would you mind opening the door? Would you be so kind as to open the door?

Common Problems with Modals

1. Using "to" unnecessarily: Incorrect They going to meet us at the theater. He should to eat his dinner. I had better to go now. You must not to use that pencil. Correct They are going to meet us at the theater. He should eat his dinner. I had better go now. You must not use that pencil.

2. Using anything but the base form after a modal: John could heard the bell. Penny will going to the movie. 3. Using double modals: You should ought to speak English. She might can help me. You ought to speak English. /should speak She might be able to help me. John could hear the bell. Penny will go to the movie.

4. Omitting "be" in certain modal expressions: They going to meet us at the theater. Jack supposed to take his medicine. 5. Using wrong word order in questions: How I can help you? Where I should go for the meeting? See also: Grammar: Common Modal Usage How can I help you? Where should I go for the meeting? They are going to meet us at the theater. Jack is supposed to take his medicine.

Vocabulary: Simple Modals Modal Verb Introduction (from Englishpage.com) If you have questions or comments about this page, please contact us. Be sure to include the title of this page in the Subject line of your e-mail.

Some Definitions of Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are difficult to define in any language because of the wide range of pragmatic uses of modal verbs by native speakers. Some of the more common definitions (in no particular order) of the modal verbs in English are:

can ability, permission, possibility, request could ability, permission, possibility, request, suggestion may permission, probability, request might possibility, probability, suggestion must deduction, necessity, obligation, prohibition shall decision, future, offer, question, suggestion should advice, necessity, prediction, recommendation will decision, future, intention, offer, prediction, promise, suggestion would conditional, habit, invitation, permission, preference, request, question, suggestion

See the complete Bright Hub Guide to Grammar Lesson Plans

Examples of Modal Verb Usage

The following sentences are examples of usage of modal verbs in English. For example, the following four sentences all ask for permission but with different degrees and types of modality:

Can I go to the bathroom? (asking for permission) May I go to the bathroom? (more politely asking for permission) Could I go to the bathroom? (asking for permission with less certainty) Might I go to the bathroom? (asking for permission with uncertainty)

The following sentences also demonstrate the subtle meanings in regards to modal verbs of suggestion:

You could listen to me. (suggestion) You might listen to me. (uncertain suggestion) You should listen to me. (strong suggestion) You must listen to me. (stronger suggestion) You will listen to me. (strongest suggestion)

The meanings of modal verbs are very pragmatic and must be learned through use.
Modal Verbs Practice Exercise

Identify the modal verb and modality (definition) in the following sentences. Sentences 1. You could ride your bike across the country, but I advise against it. 2. Since all dogs are mammals, this golden retriever must be a mammal. 3. You might consider finishing your degree. 4. I will finish my essay tonight even if I have to forgo sleep. 5. The puppy can sit on command. 6. I would eat cereal every day as a child. 7. You may encounter some difficult patrons on occasion. 8. The train should arrive in a few minutes. 9. The situation would not be so bad if we all remained calm. 10. I will have earned my graduate degree next spring.

English Exercises > modals exercises > Modals Multiple choice test
1) Aynur drink milk everday.She is very thin. 2) Studentsleave the classroom before the ring bells. 3) You brush your teeth after breakfast. 4) Your father stop smoking. 5) you pass my pencil to me? 6) You talk aloud in the library. 7) You .smoke cigarette in hospital. 8) We visit our grandparents more often. 9) You .touch burning items. 10) You drive too fast in the city.

MODAL VERBS - MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER

A. Modals come first in a verb group. B. All modals (except ought) are followed by the base form of the verb. C. Ought is followed by a to infinitive. D. Modals have only one form - they don't change from first, to second, to third person like other verbs. A. Modals are always the first word in a verb group. I should go visit them. I think it will be rather boring. Things could have been so different. B. All modals except for ought are followed by the base form of a verb. I should go visit them. I think it will rain tomorrow. Things could have been better. Someone may have seen them. They might be home tomorrow. They may be late. They should have known. He can come by anytime.

C. Ought is always followed by a to-infinitive. She ought to go out with Tom. Sam ought to have taken his medicine. You ought to be doing this, not me. D. There is no s form for the third person singular of the present tense modal verbs. Also, there is no -ing or -ed forms. She can't help him now. I'm sure he can do it tomorrow. She ought to have called him yesterday.

** Important Notes **
Modals usually do NOT indicate the time something happens. Shall and will, however, can often indicate a future event or situation. I shall do whatever you suggest. He will not be back for a few days. Could is used as the past form of can to express ability. When I was young, I could run really fast. Would is used as the past form of will to express the future. She remembered that she would be seeing him the next day. Sometimes (especially when spoken) shall and will are shortened to 'll and would to 'd and then added to a pronoun. Ill see you on Monday. I thought shed agree to go out with me. If you're interested in more information about modal verbs, Wikipedia may be of some help

Definition: We use the relative pronouns to refer to a noun mentioned before and of which we are adding more information. They are used to join two or more sentences and forming in that way what we call "relative sentences". Relative pronouns Who, Whom, That, Which whoever, whomever, whichever For example:

People who speak two languages are called bilingual. * In this example, the relative "who" introduces the relative sentence "speak two languages" that describes or gives more information about the noun "people".

Relative pronouns: Subject or Object As the relative pronouns relate to another noun preceding it in the sentence, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent (a noun that precedes the pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns acts as the subject or object of the dependent clause. For example:

The chef who won the competition studied in Paris. * Here, "who" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "Chef". "Who" also acts as the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "won". => The dependent clause: who won the competition. => The independent clause: The chef studied in Paris.

The shirt that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket. * Here, "that" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "shirt". "That" is also the object of

the verb "bought". => The dependent clause is: that Carl bought. => The independent clause: The shirt has a stain on the pocket. Referring to people: Who, Whom, Whoever, Whomever These pronouns take a different case depending on whether the relative pronoun is a subject or an object in the dependent clause.

1.

Subjective case Use the subjective case when these relative pronouns are the subject (initiating the action) of the dependent clause: Who, Whoever For example:

Negotiations were not going smoothly between the two leaders, who made no bones
about not liking each other. * "Who" relates back to the noun "leaders" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "made". Most workers, whoever was not employed by the auto manufacturer, toiled at one of the millions of little minnow companies. * "Whoever" relates back to the noun "workers" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "was employed". Objective case Use the objective case when these relative pronouns are the object (receiving the action) of the dependent clause: Whom, Whomever For example:

This is the approach taken by journalists, whom some consider to be objective.

* "Whom" relates back to the noun "journalists" and is the object of the verb "consider". The subject of the dependent clause is "some".

The three representatives, whomever the committee chooses, should be at the

meeting tomorrow. * "Whomever" relates back to the noun representatives and is the object of the verb "chooses". The subject of the dependent clause is "Committee". Referring to a place, thing or idea: Which, That When using relative pronouns for places, things or ideas, rather than determining case, the writer must decide whether the information in the dependent clause is essential to the meaning of the independent clause or simply additional information. When information is critical to the understanding of the main clause, use That as the appropriate relative pronoun and do not set the information off by commas. For example:

Russian generals have delivered a message that is difficult to ignore. * "That" relates back to the noun "message" and is necessary for the reader to know what "message" the sentence is about.

There is another factor that obviously boosts the reputation of both of these men. * "That" relates back to the noun "factor" and is necessary for the reader to know what "factor" the sentence is about.

When information is not critical to the understanding of the main clause, use "Which" as the appropriate relative pronoun and set the information off by commas. For example:

The toughest intramural fight of all for Clinton was the North American Free Trade Agreement, which he undertook a full year before the 1994 election. * "Which" relates back to the noun "agreement" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "agreement" the sentence is about.

Clinton refused to head toward the center on affirmative action and abortion, which are the two most sacred issues to the traditional liberal wing of the party. * "Wich" relates back to the noun "affirmative action and abortion" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "affirmative action and abortion" the sentence is about.

When referring to more than one place, thing or idea use these relative pronouns: Whatever, Whichever For example:

The three approaches, whichever works is fine, produce a more ambiguous picture of a man. * "Whichever" relates to the noun "approaches" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Any excessive profits, whatever exceeded accepted limits, would attract the notice of representatives. * "Whatever" relates to the noun "profits" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

) I talked to the girl car had broken down in front of the shop. 2) Mr Richards, is a taxi driver, lives on the corner. 3) We often visit our aunt in Norwich is in East Anglia. 4) This is the girl comes from Spain. 5) That's Peter, the boy has just arrived at the airport. 6) Thank you very much for your e-mail was very interesting. 7) The man, father is a professor, forgot his umbrella. 8) The children, shouted in the street, are not from our school. 9) The car, driver is a young man, is from Ireland. 10) What did you do with the money your mother lent you?

Writing > Grammar > Relative Pronouns

General Writing Grammar

Spelling Numbers Adjective or Adverb How to Use Adjectives and Adverbs Appositives Articles: A versus An How to Use Articles (a/an/the) Prepositions Pronouns Relative Pronouns Introduction to Defining Clauses Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses Defining vs. Non-Defining Count and Noncount Nouns Subject/Verb Agreement Verb Tenses Active Verb Tenses Irregular Verbs

Giving to the OWL

o o o o o

Suggested Resources

-MLA Guide -APA Guide -How to Navigate the New OWL -Media File Index -OWL Exercises

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL USAGE IN DEFINING CLAUSES

Summary: This handout provides detailed rules and examples for the usage of relative pronouns (that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why). Contributors:Russell Keck, Elizabeth Angeli Last Edited: 2011-11-11 10:53:14

The most common relative pronouns are who/whom, whoever/whomever, whose, that, and which. (Please note that in certain situations, "what," "when," and "where" can function as relative pronouns.) Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which are a type of dependent clause. Relative clauses modify a word, phrase, or idea in the main clause. The word, phrase, or idea modified is called the antecedent. In the following examples, that and whom modify the subject:
The house that Jack built is large. The professor, whom I respect, recently received tenure.

The type of clause determines what kind of relative pronoun to use. Generally, there are two types of relative clauses: restrictive (defining) clause and non-restrictive (non-defining) clause. In both types of clauses, the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive pronoun ("whose").

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses:
Function in the sentence People Subject Object Possessive who, that whose Reference to Things / concepts Place which, that where when what/why whose, of which Time Explanation

(that, who, whom)* (which, that)*

Examples
Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative clause:
This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration. It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause: 1) As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position, but formal English includes the relative pronoun. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, which is used instead of that, for example, "in which," "for which," "about which," "through which," etc. (please see the third example below):
Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had forgotten. Informal English: This is the man (whom/that) I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten. Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted. Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted. Formal English: This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the US. Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the US.

2) In American English, whom is not used very often. "Whom" is more formal than "who" and is very often omitted while speaking:
Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher. Conversational Use: The woman you have just spoken to is my teacher. OR The woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.

However, "whom" may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition because the relative pronoun functions as the object of the preposition:
The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived.

Relative pronouns used as a possessive in a restrictive relative clause: Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. The antecedent of "whose" can be both people and things:
The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in a hotel. The book whose author won a Pulitzer has become a bestseller.

Relative Pronouns in Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive relative clauses ARE separated from the main clause by a comma (in most instances). Typically, which is the preferred relative pronoun for indicating that a relative clause is non-restrictive. Non-restrictive relative clauses (also known as non-defining relative clauses) provide non-essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the sentence's meaning. In other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an aside that adds extra information.

Examples
Relative pronouns used as a subject of a non-restrictive relative clause:
The science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.

The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a non-restrictive relative clause:

The sculpture, which he admired, was moved into the basement of the museum to make room for a new exhibit. The theater, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.

"That" vs. "Who" and "Which"

The relative pronoun that can only be used in restrictive clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things) in informal English. Whereas that is often used while speaking, who and which are more common in formal written English.
Conversational, Informal: William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children. Written, Formal: William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children. Conversational, Informal: The caf that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed. Written, Formal: The caf, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been closed.

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Clauses

that / who When referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language. "That" may be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:
He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down. I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.

However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:
The old lady who lives next door is a teacher. The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.

that / which There are several cases when that is more appropriate than which: 1) After the pronouns "all," "any(thing)," "every(thing)," "few," "little," "many," "much," "no(thing)," "none," "some(thing)":
The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person. Dessert is all that he wants.

2) After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the best resource that I have ever read!