EARLY REBUPLICAN PERIOD Ottoman Empire was having a transformation and becoming a nation state- Turkey.

What is the difference between empire and nation state? Empire is a geographically extensive group of states and ethnic groups united and ruled either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy. However, nation state defines as a political unit serving as a sovereign entity for a nation. In early republican period, we see that there are legacy of Ottoman Empire in many branches of new Turkish nation state. Legacy of Ottoman Empire y Army: With Mondros Treaty Ottoman army was dissolved to prevent any attack to western side. Actually, Ottoman army was not that much damaged, and it was not dissolved. (We see some resistance movements after invasion of western powers, and during Independence war. Thus there was some remaining military power from Ottoman Empire to Turkish state). In addition, Turkish army was tried to be modernized during republican period and actually that modernization attempts also started during O. E. period. y Civilian Bureaucracy: In civilian bureaucracy we see that during republican era only lower ranking bureaucrats continued to hold their positions. y Finance: In finance issues, the most important thing was debts of Ottoman Empire to western powers. Before dissolution of Empire, Duyun-u Umumiye was set up and Lozan Peace Treaty abolished it. Actually, this debt administration led modernization of tax system in Ottoman Empire because O.E needed money to pay this debts and the most important revenue of the state was taxes. This modernization of tax system was an advantage for new rebuplic. y Education: Certain amount of modern education was already achieved in O.E. New rebuplic did not close all Ottoman schools, but medreses were closed. Civil Service Academy (Mlkiye) was moved to Ankara. Political Interactions 1921-1923 y Most important political body was 1st National Assembly.

In this assembly, most of members were war heroes or representatives of big local groups. There were two different groups in 1st National Assembly: defence of rights group and second group. Second group was against the extensive leadership of M.Kemal. In Dec. 1922, M. Kemal announced the political party founded by the members of defence of rights groups, Peoples Party (Halk Partisi). Later on in April 1923, elections were held. The main reason behind this election was that M. Kemal thought that the 1st national assembly is too heterogeneous. His plan was to hold elections and create a more homogen group, because the decision making process becomes easier with less different opinions. However the results of elections were not that good for Peoples Party. Hseyin Rauf Orbay became vice president and Ali Fethi Okyar became prime minister and both of them were from second group. M. Kemal thought that these people cannot get vote of confidence from parliament and convinced Ali Fethi Okyar to this. He had to resign because of pressure. During this political uncertainty, in October 1923 M. Kemal declared the regime of state as republic. He believed that defining regime time would eliminate the questions in peoples minds about the future of a state. He did not consult to second group while declaring republic.

Foundation of Progressive Republican Party (PRD) This party was headed by Kaz m Karabekir. What they want? a. Respect for religious opinions and beliefs (Peoples party was supporting radical secularism). b. Decentralization (PPs was supporting central policies). c. Evolutionary change which means slow reforms rather than radical and very rapid changes. (As opposed to that PPs party was supporting revolutionary changes)

d. Seperation of Powers (At first, both parties was defending this idea, but PPs party did not implement it during its governance). e. Liberal economic policy. (As opposed to that PPs wanted economic sovereignty, and for example declared that we cannot accept any loans from other countries). RPP criticized M.Kemal and said that if he takes all the decisions, what the point of being a republic is.

Seyh Said Rebellion 1925 Two important reasons: 1- Abolishing caliphate 2- not guarantying rights of Kurdish people After WWI, Kurdish elite showed sympathy to independence because Sevres Treaty gave them this right. During indepence movement, Kurdish people in local ground supported resistance. Implicit contract between Kurds and Turks: M. Kemal promised some degree of autonomy during his speech in Izmir. However,after the war this promises were forgetten. Because Kurdish groups perceived themselves ethnically different from Turks, the only link between Kurdish and Turkish people were Islam. After the abolishment of caliphate this link was also gone and Kurdish people could not see any reason to stay together. Seyh Said and his followers decided to make a rebellion. Seyh Said was a religious person, from Naksibendi Tarkitat . He had religious legitimacy in the eyes of people. Azadi organization was the body that organized this rebellion. Rebellion could not be surpassed for a couple of months. Later on, it was surpassed and Seyh Said and his followers were tried in Istiklal Courts. 38 people were executed. The members of PRP also tried in Istiklal courts, because Rebuplican Peoples Party believed that there was a link between PRP and this rebellion. Consequences: y y Martial law was declared Amendments to high treason law (dini political amaclarla kullanmak yasakland ).
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Takrir-I Sukun Kanunu (1925-29). Dzeni Srdrme Kanunu- right to close any organization or any publication that threatens the order of the state. This law led to monopolization of power of RPP.

POLITICAL INTERACTIONS IN 1920S Izmir Conspiracy zmir Suikasti, Haziran 1926'da yurt gezileri kapsam nda bulundu u zmir kentinde Mustafa Kemal Pa a'ya kar yap lmas tasarlanm bir suikast giri imidir. Suikast gerekle meden nce ortaya kar lm , sulu grlen ok say da ki i idam veya hapis cezas yla cezaland r lm t r. Consequences: y y y Eliminating the opposition (PRP) by RPP. Consolidation of power by RPP. Elimination of opposition eased to make reforms.

Reforms: y March 3, 1924 abolition of Caliphate and Sheikh-ul Islam, abolition of religious courts. y y Unification of education. Adoption of new constitution. (Republic, Ankara, Islam). Legislative+executive power concentrated in assembly and there was majoritarian rule rather than pluralism. Criticism: no checks and balances mechanism. y Adaption of new Swiss Civil Code 1926.

Analyzing Reforms: 1- Kind of secular reforms. For example Islamic charismatic authority is eliminated by caliphetes abolition. Sheikh-ul Islam was acting an advising body, and checking whether laws were contrary to Islam or not. was abolished.

Swiss Civil Code vs Religious courts (abolition of them). That shows modernity, with Swiss Civil code more rights were given to women. 2- New Constitution 1924 Constitution was mainly about to make a framework about the relations of government and citizens. Features of 1924 const. y y y y State regime is republic Capital city is Ankara State religion is Islam Distance between executive and legislative bodies is not clear. Actually, that distance shows the democracy level of a country. Free Republican Party (FRP) 1930 This party is known as loyal opposition, because RPP created this opposition to decrease the power of growing opposition. M.Kemal wanted from Fethi Okyar to establish this party. It survived only 3 months. Why? This party made a demonstration in Izmir to criticize government. FRP was supported by majority of non-muslims. It got the 30/500 of seats in local elections in 1930, just after establishment. All of them created fear within RPP. Menemen Incident Dec,1930 Some people were demanding the restoration of old regime and sharia. Kubilay (astsubay) tried to suppress this people in Memenen and was killed by rebels. After this incident martial law was declared and 27 people were executed. (Totalitarian tendencies of government). NEW ERA OF SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TRANSFORMATION Duhrer believes that in 1920s Turkish government was authoritarian at political level. In 1930s, it was totalitarian, because the state penetrates into the all structures of the society, social, and cultural life in order to shape peoples way of thinking-national identity.
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Peoples Houses (Halk Evleri) Turkish Hearts (Trk Ocaklar ).- Peoples Houses. y y y To form national unity through spreading national culture and ideas. To explain the ideology and principles of RPP to people. The board members of Peoples houses were appointed by RPP.

Other civil society organizations were closed for example Trk Kad nlar Birli i, Teachers Union etc. Inspectorate Generals (Umum Mfetti leri) They are the state representatives of regions, sent by RPP. These people had all kinds of control and great administrative powers. They were like mayors of these areas and getting order from prime minister. First one was in South-Eastern Turkey to control Kurdish tribes. Dersim Issue- people were reluctant to cooparete with state and about 30,000 people were killed in Dersim. We see that state wanted to make itself monopoly power, and these were thereat to its monopolization of power and they were killed.

y y

Building Turkish nationalism and giving people a Turkish consciousness. In 1931 RPP party congress, the definition of a nation made as follows: citizens connected to each other through culture, language and ideals. That definition excludes Kurdish people and some other minorities because people can be member of Turkish nation if they speak Turkish. What about non-muslims? Recep Peker (Secretary of RPP) said that: We need to voice our ideas and our Christian and Jewish citizens on the condition that they participate inthe language and ideals. Non-muslims could not be considered as full Turks since there are differences in blood ties and historical links. What about non-Turkish muslims? (like Kurds, laz, pomaks)
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They saw them as people who can be assimilated into Turkish culture easily. Turkification Policies y y PRP made a law which says all companies must use Turkish (1926). Another law ordered that only Turks can be civil servants. It excluded non-Muslims from public service, but non-Turkish muslims were not excluded. (this law was abolished in 1965). y y Some occupations banned for non-muslims such as pilot, driver, translator etc. PRP tried to create a common language and shared history. Society for the Study of Turkish History (Trk Tarihi Tetkik Cemiyeti) is established. Why? y y y y To reveal the real history of Turks The government would supervise this society Peoples houses would help them to create a common Turkish history Press would help (it was under the control of state)

Some of the members of this society were also representatives in the assembly. They were talking about the negative effects of Islam on Turkish culture and there was secularization project which tries to abandon all ties with Ott. Empire. They justified the existence of Turkish republic in Anatolia by emphasizing Turks before Islam. Main Themes of Turkish History is a book published in these years to reveal the real history of Turks. First Turkish History Congress was took place, and teachers attended this congress because they are the ones who educate children.

Society for the Study of Turkish Language (Trk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti) This society emphasized the negative impact of Islamic cultures on Turkish language. y y y Their aim was to purify Turkish language. RPP organized Turkish language congress (1932,1934,1936). 1936 Sun Language Theory which claims that source of all languages is Turkish. Turks were sun worshippers in Central Asia, they needed to talk about the Sun and Turks were the first ones who used a language. y y There was also a campaign which aims to make all citizens talk Turkish. Law on Surnames (1934)--- names of foreign races and nations could not be adopted as last names.

ECONOMY IN 1920s-1930s Ottoman legacy in economy: After the dissolution of O.E, many minorities left country and this caused loss of Ottoman bourgeoisie class. There were also some other limitations in economy coming from Ottoman period and Lausanne Treaty. First, the Ottoman debts were very important problem and the first payment must be made in 1929. Capitulations were also another problem and it can be removed after 5 years from Lausanne Treaty in 1929.

1923-1929 Economic model was open economy but the state was not passive. 1923 Izmir Economic Congress:The conference was held in order to emphasize the importance for the Turkey of economic development. The general opinion was that industrialization is crucial. The decisions of this congress implemented in 1930s, because the capitulations would be removed within 5 years. Within these years:

The main aim was to create economic independence, to create a national economy which is self-sufficient to itself. State supported Private Accumulation under Open Economy Conditions, state helped private entrepreneurs (Devlet kendi eliyle Turk burjuvazisi yaratmaya al t , nk Osmanl dneminde ticaret gayrimslmlerin elindeydi). Law on Encouragement of Industry (Te vik-i Sanayi Kanunu) is made in 1927. State established its own banks I Bankas , Ziraat Bankas , Sanayi ve Maadin Bankas . (Until establishment of I Bankas there wasnt any bank that is owned by state or Turkish people in society). Nationalization of railways for both economic and security concerns. The most important progress was abolition of Asar tax, that contributed much to agricultural production and agriculture contributed much to economic growth. (RPP yeni kurulan bir parti olarak tar mla u ra an kyly memnun etmek ve yan na ekmek iin a ar vergisini kald rd ve bu ayn zamanda ekonomik bymeye olumlu ynde katk sa lad ). Turkey became exporter of the agricultural goods, and importer of finished products. In that period, there was also 10% growth in industry, but industry does not contribute much to GNP, the real contributor was agriculture.

y y

y y

1929-1932 y y y Custom tariffs increased from 13% to 46%, but on certain goods not on machinery and intermediary goods There was a search for a new model and transition to statism/etatism. External factors-1929 Great Depression  Great depression affected Turkish economic policies very much and Turkey become protectionist, inward-looking like other countries in the world.  Decline in prices of agricultural and industrial goods. Since Turkey was exporter of agricultural goods, the decline in prices affected Turkish economy negatively.

1933-1939 y y Turkish economy had import limitations, protectionism and statism. The goal was balanced budget and strong currency. (The Law on protection of the value of TL implemented in 1930).
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y y y y y y

State economic enterprises were founded such as Sumerbank, Etibank. Importation of finished goods fell from 51% to 21%, and share of intermediary goods in imports increased 26% to 54%. Five year plans started to be made in this period, these plans show that state tried to plan and manage economy. Turkey is far from being a liberal economic model. Industrial sectors contribution to GNP increased. State did not abolish all private sectors, both private and state sectors co-existed and private sectors also developed. Agriculture expanded as well, because after Great Depression prices of agricultural products decreased and peasants produced more to keep their life standards at the same level.

FOREIGN POLICY IN 1920s-1930s In foreign policy issues the main principle was Peace at home, peace abroad. In that years Turkey was dealing with internal issues and trying to consolidate its statehood. (Seyh Said, Menemen Incidents). Thus the state was trying to be neutral in foreign relations, and aim of Turkey was normalization of relations. It was a new state and tried to keep its relations well with Europe and modernize the state. 1- Turkey Britain Relations:

The main problem of Turkish-Britain relations was Musul issue. Musul Issue: Britain wanted to be Musul within its control and according to Moudros Armistice Musul was going to be under the mandate of it. Britain had both political and economic incentives. The political one was about security; regarding the unity of Iraq Musul helps Britain to secure its position in Iraq, and Musul also had petroleum and this was the economic incentive for Britain. Turkey was saying that 2/3 of the population of Musul is Kurdish and Turkish people, so according to Misak- Milli, Musul must be part of Turkey. This problem could not be solved in Lausanne Treaty, and this problem went to League of Nations to be solved. In that years, Britain was most important actor in world politics thus naturally the decision was made regarding the interest of Britain. Musul is part of Iraq and should remain as mandate of Britain for 25 years. 2- Turkey-France Relations  Nationalization of railways by Turkish government (Previously, Adana-Mersin railway belong to France).
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 Hatay Issue: In 1921 Franklin-Boullion Agreement- special condition of Hatay is recognized. France-Turkish Agreement in 1926- Hatay was decided to be autonomous region. In 1939, Hatay became part of Turkey with referendum. 3- Mediterranean Question In this period, Italy was biggest military threat for Turkey. (Mussolini came to power in 1922, and his idea was to revive Roman Empire and expand territories of Italy).  1928- Neutrality Agreement between Italy and Turkey is signed.  1930- Neutrality Agreement between Greece and Turkey.  1934- Balkan Entente was signed including Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia.  1932- Turkey became member of League of Nations. Turkeys main perspective was collective security principle. If there is any international issue, Turkey wanted to be ally with powerful countries. Thus it needed to have good relations with them. 1936- Montreux Convention: it was a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus Straits and the Dardanelles and regulates the transit of naval warships. The Convention gives Turkey full control over the Straits and guarantees the free passage of civilian vessels in peacetime. It also permitted Turkey to remilitarize the Straits. 1937 Sadabat Pact: it was a non-aggression pact signed by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan on July 8, 1937. WORLD WAR II It was a global conflict that was underway by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved a majority of the world's nationsincluding all of the great powers. Before the war, European powers tried to please Germany to prevent any destructive war between states. This principle of European powers is known as appeasement. In 1938, Austria became a part of Germany and European powers did not intervene to it.

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In 1939, Czechoslovakia is invaded by Germany. Sudenlandwas a territory within the borders of Czechs and Hitler said Germany will have this territory. European powers remained silent. During this period, Germany perceived itself as superior because their economic and military power was increasing very rapidly under the fascism of Hitler. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland and Britain-France understood that appeasement does not work, they needed to declare war. Blitzkrieg- It was military tactic of Germany during WWII. The main principle was force concentration. Germany used tanks, air power very effectively. This tactic was very different from old one which was based on fronts in a war. (this tactic was weakening coordination center of your enemy). Anglo-Franco-Turkish Treaty in 1939 : Financial and military aid from Britain and France to Turkey. In return, if the war threatens the borders of Turkey, the state will join the war as an ally with Britain and France. The death of Atatrk in 1938 made Turkey somewhat powerless in international arena. Ismet Inonu exploited all aids coming from other countries but his main aim was to prevent Turkey from involvement in the war. Turkeys strategy during the war was active neutrality If Italy attacks to Balkans and Mediterrenean region, Turkey was supposed to be get involved in the war. Actually, Hitlers plan was first to defeat Soviets then later on to attack Turkey, but he could not defeat Soviets and never attacked to Turkey. Impacts of WWII on Turkey:  Turkey got military and economic aid from European states but not get involved in war (active neutrality).  Turkey played the game according to power dynamics. In 1941, it signed nonagression pact with Germany because Turkish government knew that if Hitler defeats Soviets, Turkey was its next destination.  Wealth Tax 1942:This tax was applied to all wealthy people but rate of tax applied to muslims and non-muslims was different. Justification was that in
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war times states need money and taxes are source of this money. Germany was about to win the war and this tax was favoring a fascist ideology. If people were not able to pay their taxes, they were sent to Erzurum, A kale etc.  Due to law conditions, state became repressive and explotative.  National defence law was declared. y Forced labor (state was in need of labor and people worked for state without getting any payment in return). y Fixing quotas and prices (certain basic materials were in scarce because of war conditions, Karne dnemi). y Freezing salaries.

TRANSITION TO MULTI PARTY POLITICS IN TURKEY International context: Cold war period was about to start. y Turkey- Soviet Relations: Soviets wanted to share power on straits, and getting Kars, Ardahan from Turkey. RPP did not accept this, and suppressed pro-leftist intellectuals in Turkey. Turkey-US Relatios: Turkey chose US as an ally. However, US was giving very much importance to free speech, democracy and liberty. Thus if Turkey wants to be ally with US it had to change its regime. It should get rid of single party government and make a transition to multiparty regime. Domestic Context: Emergence of opposition within RPP Manifesto of Four (Drtl Takrir): Adnan Menderes, Refik Koraltan, Celal Bayar and Fuat Kprl made this manifesto. Their argument was that RPP should change itself. They argued that political maturity of society is complete and social dynamics are suitable for multiparty regime. Moreover, US as a major power supporting plural democracy, thus international context is also favorable. Land Reforms Proposal: Seed of split RPP was making a policy which aimed to redistribute lands. (Zengin land-ownerlardan al nan araziler, landless insanlara verilecekti).

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These four people opposed this proposal. Why? Adnan Menderes was a big land-owner, Celal Bayar was in favor of liberalism. They got many support from outside. Their argument was that we are not going to nationalize and sell these land owners lands, this proposal should be limited with vak f lands because this is against the property rights of people. After this land reform debate, these four people understood that they cannot continue within RPP, they formed Democrat Party and Ismet Inonu remained silent about this new party. Thus, Democrat party emerged within RPP. Democrat Party: Demands of DP before establishment: -Freedom of press, direct elections, autonomy for universities, amendments on police law and separation of national leader (president) from RPP. (Ismet Inonu was both president and head of RPP). Tan Affair: 1945 Tan Newspaper was a supporter of liberal ideology and it was supporting the ideology of DP. Some group of people attacked to this newspaper. RPP did nothing. That shows RPP wanted opposition but did not give support to protect it. RPP made some reforms in response to this opposition: y y Abolishment of the title of Milli ef Liberal press law

Within same year, just after establishment DP achieved to get 14 seats in parliament. that created fear in RPP. RPP shifted back to authoritarian measures Recep Peker foreign minister of RPP was supporting repression against this opposition, especially toward Kaz m Karabekir. DPs response to these authoritarian tendencies of RPP was that:

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if you are going to make repressive policies towards us, we will leave parliament. That means whether you will play the game according to democratic rules or we will leave the parliament.

Truman Doctrine 1947: The message of Truman doctrine was that Turkey must be democratic in order to get aid from US. In addition to domestic environment and pressures, also external dynamics made Turkey to change its regime from single party to multiparty.

Later on, Ismet Inonu declared that he is going to be in equal distance to every party. This declaration is known as 12 July declaration. Moreover, Recep Peker was forced to resign.

DEMOCRAT PARTY IN POWER 1950-1960 In 1950, a new election was held and DP got 53% of votes and 408 of seats in parliament, RPP got 38.9% of votes and 69 seats of parliament. The reason was majoritarian electoral system. That created inbalanced power structure in parliament. Celal Bayar became president and Adnan Menderes became prime minister. Party Program of DP: Harsh position against single party government DP was against the militarys involvement in politics and tried to decrease its power Liberal economic policies Anti-communist attitudes.

Possible Threats to DP:

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Military did not perceive DP as a legitimate government. This was a threat coming

from military. To eliminate these problem, DP initially retired 15 generals and more than 100 colonels. RPP. Some civilian bureaucrats were against DP, because these people were appointed by

The aim of DP in its first year was securing the governmental power Politicians of DP tried to secure their governmental power in two ways: 1Emphasizing National will (milli irade) : DP claimed that RPP never came to power

by competing with other parties and getting the majority of votes. There was no other party to compete so RPP was not representing national will, DP representing national will because people elected them with a majority of votes. 2The mission of carrying the revolution to its final stage: According to DP, revolution

is incomplete. First, they focused on economy and wanted liberal economic model.

Who was supporting DP? Peasants, commercial bourgeoisie, conservative people. Who was supporting RPP? Military officers, civil bureaucracy and intelligentsia

Religious Reactions and DPs response People who were forming DPs local community in Konya revolted and wanted Arabic alphabet and fes back. RPP criticized them in the parliament, and DP should give a decision. If it stops these people, its popularity might decrease among supporters but they suppressed these people.

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Moreover, some religious people attacked the statues of Atatrk, and DP made Atatrk law which states that people who attacks the statues of Atatrk will be punished. DP had populist attitude and got mass support from society. DP Becoming Autocratic DP started to show its autocratic tendencies toward state bureaucracy. y y y First, DP got control of state radio Targeted statutes of Inonu University law (most of proffessors were supporting the ideology of RPP and DP made a law which states that professors cannot take part in political party organizations). y Press law (journalists who write against the prestige of country, will be punished).

1954 Elections: DP got 501 seats and RPP got 31 seats in parliament. That result increased the self-confidence of DP very much. They relied upon on national will much more. They made a new law which proposes that radio station cannot be used by opposition. Another law was also implemented and it suggested that government can retire any state officer. Events of 6-7 September 1955: What happened ? non muslims (especially Greeks) and their properties attacked by muslims. The main aim was to make them leave country. Within these, there was theoretical equality but practical inequality between muslims and nonmuslims. We can consider this event in parallel with DPs conservative and autocratic regime. They were okey with these national acts in Turkey; moreover they said that firstly Greek people in Cyprus should be controlled.

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POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN DP PERIOD Increasing polarization between RPP and DP was very visible in the last three years of DP period. 1954 DP RPP 503 31 1957 elections 424 seats 178 seats

This election results showed that national will is decreasing and DP was legitimizing its governmental power with national will, so its legitimization was also losing its base. Why its support was decreasing? There were both economic and political reasons behind it, because political crisis was going in line with the economic crisis. Political reason: Most of people expect enlargement of freedom from DP during its governance however it had quite repressive regime against citizens. That created disappointment among DP supporters. Economic reason: DP was putting very much money in agricultural sector, but economy was not growing. Thus bad economic situation was also another factor that contributed to fall of DPs votes. A clever move from RPP would be unify and coordinate opposition against DP. RPP launched a political campaign called as G Birli i. (union of forces). RPP also published Ilk Hedefler Beyannamesi. Demands of RPP was that y y Political rights should increase DP should go back to more controlled economic model.

In response to that, DP formed Vatan Cephesi (Fatherland Front) . DP was calling RPP was axes of evil. DP was triggering polarization within country. Plane Crash Incident(1959): Adnan Menderes was coming back from London, his plane crashed and most of the people in plane died in this accident. Menderes survived and DP
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exploited this event to revive its popularity. They said Menderes is a blessed person and has divine personality. RPP planned to make series of demonstrations in all parts of the Turkey and they are called as Byk Taaruz. In media, there was not any news about this increasing polarization between political parties, conflicts and crashes. Censorship from DP was very high. In order to show their reactions to this censorship, some newspaper owners published their newspapers without any new. 1958: It was clear that DP lost support from most important state institutionsUniversities and media. Whatever happened after 1958 was extension minutes for DP. Investigation Committee: The main rumor was that military is going to make an intervention to DP government. This committee was formed to investigate this rumor. It had extra judicial rights. Establishment of this committee was not a clever move, because it increased the level of aggression toward DP regime. With its acts, DP was still causing polarization and triggering opposition. Cemal Grsel suggested that Adnan Menderes should be president and prime minister should someone from not DP. (That might decrease the level of opposition against DP). Adnan Menderes did not accept it, because he had overconfidence, because he had mass support from society. He believed that military could not dare to make a coup against his party. May 21, Military academy (Harbiye) was going to organize a march. May 27, military coup happened. Turkish Economy 1945-1960 1- Economic recovery and RPPs Liberal Measures (1945-50) We cannot say that DP is representing liberalism whereas RPP was representing statism. For economic growth RPP changed its economic policies and within these years Turkish economy achieved 11% growth. Why RPP went through changes in economic policies?

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 International dynamics: USA favors liberal democracy. Turkey was getting Marshall aid from US, so to please US, Turkey shifted to liberal democracy.  Domestic Dynamics: Competition. Pressures coming from different segments of society. In 1947, Turkey became a member of IMF. Then we see devaluation of TL by 120% and new development plan for Turkish economy. State favored free enterprises, development of agriculture and agro-industries. Roads are built instead of railways, and development in energy sector. Major banks were established in these years. Yap kredi, Garanti, Akbank 2- Democrats in Control: Optimism of the first years (1950-55):  The main idea was that the state should organize economy, but not to run it.  DP tried to foster industrial and agricultural production   Pro-market capitalism was main economic model  No long term plans in economy was made. The main investment was in three sectors: y Transportation-infrastructure: (building roads that eases economic relations and transformation of good from one place to another). y y building industry Agricultural sector

The aim was to develop agricultural sector. In order to achieve agricultural development DP made some strategic moves: y Subsidies to peasants (by giving direct money to peasants, state dared to lose from its own budget). y State gave cheap credits to peasants to make them buy tractors. (Devlet tar mda makinele meye gitmek istiyordu). y Peasantry was paying very low amount of tax. Actually, DPs focus on agriculture was successful for economic growth in first year, but it was not sustainable. Why? In that years the weather was exceptionally good for agriculture. That contributed much to boom in agr. sector. However, DP was making a big mistake, it was only providing tractors but there was not any development in

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agricultural production. For example they did not build irrigation channels. Thus this made agricultural development unsustainable. Industry The second focus was on industrial development y Industrial Development Bank of Turkey (Trkiye Sanayi ve Kalk nma Bankas ) was founded in 1950 by DP. This bank was providing credits to private entrepreneurs. DP wanted de-etatization of the state, and provided managerial and technical consultancy to these entrepreneurs. y DP made a law to encourage foreign capital. Their idea was that there is no harm in inviting foreign capital to Turkey. However this attempt was not successful only 1% of investment was from foreign capital. y In 1954, DP implemented Oil Law. According to this law foreign companies can come and search for oil in Turkey. Economic Downturn (1955-60): y y y Inflation increased from 3% (1950)- 20% (1957). There was not efficient taxation system. Peasantry was paying very low taxes. In 1954, IMF warned Turkey, and said it may have huge economic trouble. IMF suggested to Turkey to cut down government expenditures and devalue Turkish lira. DP did not care about it. Distribution policy of DP: Most of the state money coming from Marshall aid was going to agriculture. DP was pleasing peasants, that benefited most to big land owners and they became very rich. Three reasons for economic failure in last years of DP government: 1. They could not do any long term economic programs. They were short-sighted. They thought if they change framework (for example implement any law), everything will happen as they wish in a couple of days. That was not the case thus they failed.

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DP policy makers were so nave about liberalism. They cannot decide what is going to happen, in liberal economic order market determines prices and market regulates itself. 2. They were very allergic to any long term plans. Ex: five year plans. 3. Politically driven decisions also caused economic failure. For example it was more efficient to make sugar company in Ankara, but they invest in Adiyaman because in that city there was potential voters of DP. All of these reasons contributed to economic downturn and in 1958 Turkey understand that it should fulfill the demands of IMF, and actually DP policy makers fulfilled them but it was late.

COLD WAR DYNAMICS IN TURKEY Cold War is the conflict between the Communist nations led by the Soviet Union and the democratic nations led by the United States. Containment Policy of US: it was a United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. Iron Curtain of Soviet Union: political, military, and ideological barrier created by the Soviet Union after World War II to separate itself and its dependent eastern and central European allies from open contact with the West and other noncommunist areas. In Turkish context, cold war benefited much to Turkey. Although there wasnt any communist take-over threat in Turkey, US gave $150 million to Turkey to consolidate its capitalist structure. Because there was a theory called Domino Theory which suggests that if any of these countries (the ones close to Soviets such as Greece, Turkey) become communist that might cause a domino effect and its neighbors might be communist, too. In order to prevent this domino effect, US provided economic aid to both Turkey, Greece and other western European countries. This is known as Marshal Plan. This plan both helped the

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economic recovery of Europe after WWII, and prevented the emergence of communist regime in these countries. The military component of USs containment policy was NATO. Reason behind its existence: to ensure defense &security of European states. If any non-member state initiates a war against any NATO member, all members will fight together. (collective security). Korean War in 1950: It was a proxy war which means Soviet Union and US did not fight with each other directly but both supported different the sides which were representing their ideology. Turkey sent nearly 10,000 soldiers to Korea and many of them died there. Since in that years Turkeys aim was to be a part of European coalition, this war was an opportunity for that. Turkey- US Relations in 1950: y y US built military bases in Incirlik At the end of 1950s, Turkey was weakening in domestic context (DP was losing its power and dominance) and this domestic weakening caused more dependence to US in international context. What was happening in the world in 1950s? Important events: Balkan Pact 1954: an alliance between Greece, Rumania, Turkey, and Yugoslavia that was concluded in Athens on Feb. 9, 1934; its purpose was to maintain the balance of forces that developed in the Balkans after World War I. Ba dat Pact 1955: This pact is signed by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Britain. (US wanted from them regarding the benefit of containment policy). The aim was to create an environment that eases to implement the policies of containment. Suez Canal Crisis 1956: international crisis in the Middle East, precipitated on July 26, 1956, when the Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, nationalized the Suez Canal. The canal had been owned by the Suez Canal Company, which was controlled by French and British interests. Later on, UN got involved in the situation and gave the right of control the canal to Egypt.

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Eisenhower Doctrine: He was a former US president and his doctrine was that US will provide both military and economic aid to Middle East countries in order to prevent spread of communism. Lebanon Crisis 1958: In July 1958, Lebanon was threatened with civil war between Maronite Christians and Muslims. The intervention of the U.S. military eased the tension (Trkiyedeki incirlik hava stlerini kulland ).

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