Chapter 8-

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
1
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?
Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 8.0, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.0 is by Neil Boenzi, The New
York Times.)
Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister
6e. (Fig. 18.11W(b) is courtesy of
National Semiconductor Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig.
17.19(b), Callister 6e.
CHAPTER 8:
MECHANICAL FAILURE
Chapter 8-
Mechanical Failure
The usual causes for failure are:
Improper materials selection and processing
Inadequate design
Misuse
Cost of failure
1000 Billions of $ or YTL annually
Loss of human life !
Chapter 8 -
Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Occurs with plastic deformation
Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic
Chapter 8- 2
Ductile
fracture is
desirable!
Classification:
Ductile:
warning before
fracture
Brittle:
No warning
Failure is catastrophic
Adapted from Fig. 8.1,
Callister 6e.
DUCTILE VS BRITTLE FAILURE
Substantial plastic deformation
Absorb high amounts of energy
before fracture
What is the reduction in x-sectional
area ?
Chapter 8-
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.
cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture
Chapter 8-
Fracture, in detail
Two steps involved in fracture:
Crack formation
Crack growth
Two fracture modes can be defined
Ductile (preferred, most metals and some polymers)
extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of a crack
Extension of crack length requires an increase in the applied load,
hence crack is stable unless stress is increased. Crack propagation
is therefore slow
Brittle (undesired, ceramics, metals at low temperatures)
Takes place w/o appreciable plastic deformation
Crack is unstable, will propagate with high speed once formed and
w/o increase in applied stress
Chapter 8-
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
20
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, c
Engineering
tensile
stress, o
smaller toughness (ceramics)
larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
TOUGHNESS
& RESILIENCE
RESILIENCE is energy stored in the material w/o plastic deformation ! U
r
=
y
2
/ 2 E
TOUGHNESS is total energy stored in the material upon fracture !
Chapter 8-
Heverill Fire Department aerial ladder
failure from:
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/FailureA
naly.htm
From http://plane-truth.com/comet.htm
Chapter 8-
Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.
Example: Failure of a Pipe
Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Observe the variation in the
amount of plastic deformation
Chapter 8-
From http://plane-truth.com/comet.htm
Anything peculiar in this image !
Chapter 8-
Engineering Fracture Design
r/h
sharper fillet radius
increasing w/h
0 0.5 1.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Stress Conc. Factor, K
t
o
max
o
o
=
Avoid sharp corners!
o
Adapted from Fig.
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
r ,
fillet
radius
w
h
o
o
max
Chapter 8- 7
Elliptical hole in
a plate:
Stress distrib. in front of a hole:
Stress concentration
factor:
Large K
t
promotes failure:
FLAWS ARE STRESS CONCENTRATORS!
Sharper cracks amplify stress !
More important for brittle materials
as in ductile material Plas. Dfm
takes place and stress is distributed
more uniformly around a crack !
o
max

t
~
2
o
o
a
|
\

|
.
|

t
NOT
SO
BAD
K
t
=2
Chapter 8-
Evolution to failure:
Resulting
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
50 mm
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
50 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
100 mm
Fracture surface of tire cord wire
loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
Moderately Ductile Failure
necking
o
void
nucleation
void growth
and linkage
shearing
at surface
fracture
Chapter 8-
Ductile Fracture
Cup and cone fracture in Aluminum
SEM of the fracture surface:
Fractographic studies
Dimples, micro-cavities that
initiate crack formation, on the
surface will be observed during
high resolution investigation of
the cup and cone type fracture
surfaces.
Cup
Cone
Dimple
Micro-void
Chapter 8-
Intergranular
(between grains)
Intragranular
(within grains)
Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
316 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
304 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Olsen, Oak Ridge
National Lab.)
Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Defor-mation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.
3mm
4mm
160mm
1mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
Chapter 8-
Impact Testing
final height initial height
Impact loading:
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
(Charpy)
Chapter 8-
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and K
c
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
Temperature
BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
I
m
p
a
c
t

E
n
e
r
g
y
Temperature
High strength materials (o
y
> E/150)
polymers
More Ductile Brittle
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)
Adapted from Fig. 8.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 8-
DBTT
1. As temperature decreases a ductile material can become behave brittle
- ductile-to-brittle transition
2. FCC metals remain ductile down to very low temperatures.
3. For ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher
temperatures than for metals.
4. The ductile-to-brittle transition can be measured by impact testing: the
impact energy needed for fracture drops suddenly over a relatively
narrow temperature range temperature of the ductile-to-brittle
transition.
Chapter 8-
Pre-WWII: The Titanic WWII: Liberty ships
Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Chapter 8 -
Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
Ideal vs Real Materials
TS << TS
engineering
materials
perfect
materials
o
c
E/10
E/100
0.1
perfect matl-no flaws
carefully produced glass fiber
typical ceramic
typical strengthened metal
typical polymer
DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...
-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!
Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.
Chapter 8-
Flaws ; Stress concentrators
Fracture strength of a brittle solid is related to the
cohesive forces between atoms, bond strength. It
can be estimated that the theoretical cohesive
strength of a brittle material should be around ~
E/10. But experimental fracture strength is
normally E/100 - E/10,000.
Much lower fracture strength is explained by the
effect of stress concentration at microscopic
flaws. The applied stress is amplified at the tips
of micro-cracks, voids, notches, surface
scratches, corners, etc. that are called stress
concentrators raisers.
The magnitude of this amplification depends on
micro-crack orientations, geometry and
dimensions.
Chapter 8 -
Crack growth condition:
Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
Design Against Crack Growth
K K
c
= a Y t o
--Result 1: Max. flaw size
dictates design stress.
max
c
design
a Y
K
t
< o
o
a
max
no
fracture
fracture
--Result 2: Design stress
dictates max. flaw size.
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
o t
<
design
c
max
Y
K
a
a
max
o
no
fracture
fracture
Chapter 8 -
Two designs to consider...
Design A
--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa
Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
Key point: Y and K
c
are the same in both designs.
Answer: MPa 168 ) (
B
= o
c
Reducing flaw size pays off!
Material has K
c
= 26 MPa-m
0.5
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Use...
max
c
c
a Y
K
t
= o


o
c
a
max ( )
A
= o
c
a
max ( )
B
9 mm 112 MPa
4 mm
--Result:
Chapter 8 -
Loading Rate
Increased loading rate...
-- increases o
y
and TS
-- decreases %EL
Why? An increased rate
gives less time for
dislocations to move past
obstacles.
o
c
o
y
o
y
TS
TS
larger
c
smaller
c
Chapter 8 -
Mechanical Failure:
How do materials break ?
Fracture: crack growth to rupture at a critical load
Ductile vs Brittle fracture
Principles of Fracture Mechanics
Stress Concentration
Impact Fracture Testing
Fatigue: crack growth due to cycling loads
Cyclic stresses, the S-N curve
Crack initiation and propagation
Factors that effect fatigue behavior
Creep: high temperature plastic deformation
Stress and temperature effects
Alloys for hi-temperature usage
Chapter 8- 17
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
tension on bottom
compression on top
counter motor
flex coupling
b
e
a
rin
g
b
e
a
rin
g
specimen
Stress varies with time.
--key parameters are S and o
m
Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though o
max
< o
critical
.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.16 is from
Materials Science in
Engineering, 4/E by Carl. A.
Keyser, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
FATIGUE
Load
Explain!
Chapter 8-
FATIGUE
How ?
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads considerably
lower than tensile or yield strengths of material under a static load:
Important ?
Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic structures (bridges,
aircraft, machine components, etc.)
What is the failure type ?
Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in
normally ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial (tension or
compression), flextural (bending) or torsional (twisting).
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages:
Crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress raisers),
incremental crack propagation,
final catastrophic failure.
Chapter 8-
Periodic and symmetrical
Rotating Car axle
Periodic and asymmetrical
Random stress fluctuations
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
FATIGUE DESIGN PARAMETERS
Chapter 8- 18
Fatigue limit, S
fat
:
--no fatigue if S < S
fat
Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero!
Adapted from Fig.
8.17(a), Callister 6e.
Adapted from Fig.
8.17(b), Callister 6e.
FATIGUE DESIGN PARAMETERS
S
fat
case for
Steel % Ti
N = Cycles to failure
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
unsafe
safe
S

=

s
t
r
e
s
s

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
case for
Al (typ.)
N = Cycles to failure
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
unsafe
safe
S

=

s
t
r
e
s
s

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
For steels S
fat
= 35%-60% of
YS
Think about design criteria
factor, N in chapter 6
Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic
and elastic deformation
High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic
deformation (N > 10
5
)
Endurance Limit
Chapter 8-
LOW cycle FATIGUE
Vs HIGH cycle FATIGUE
Chapter 8-
Goodmans rule
Chapter 8-
Fatigue loading of cracked
components
Chapter 8- 19
Crack grows incrementally
( )
m
K A
dN
dC
A =
typ. 1 to 6
( ) C o A ~
increase in crack length per loading cycle
Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
K
max
< K
c
--crack grows faster if
Ao increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.
crack origin
Adapted from
Fig. 8.19, Callister
6e. (Fig. 8.19 is from
D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials
Park, OH, 1985.)
Fatigue loading of cracked
components
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
1. Impose a
compressive
surface stress
(to suppress
surface
cracks from
growing)
20
--Method 1: shot peening
2. Remove stress
concentrators.
bad
bad
better
better
--Method 2: carburizing
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression
shot
Adapted from
Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
Adapted from
Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.
IMPROVING FATIGUE LIFE
POLISH THE SURFACE !
Chapter 8-
Almost all materials fail in fatigue at stresses well below the tensile
strength.

e
= 0.9
ts
IMPROVING FATIGUE LIFE
Chapter 8-
Materials to resist fatigue: con-rods
for high-performance engines
AL m=
e
A
F
o s
e
FL m
o

>
e
F
A
o
>

o
e
M =
@ 18000 rpm
Life span
30h
Nf
3e7
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
IMPROVING FATIGUE LIFE
Chapter 8-
(a, b) Load-limited design.
(c) Energy-limited design.
(d) Displacement-limited design.
Each must perform its function without
fracturing.
TYPES OF DESING
Chapter 8-
The key players in fracture-limited design: load and geometry, crack
length and material
c Y
K
C
t
o
1
<
In a load-limited designthe structural member of a bridge or
the wing-spar of an aircraft
M1 = K
1c
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
(

=
E
K
cY
Ue
C
MAX
1
2
2
2
1
t
Gc
E
K
M
C
~
(

=
1
2
2
Energy-limited design
Displacement-limited design
E / o c =
(

=
E
K
cY
C
f
1
1
t
c
(

=
E
K
M
C 1
3
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
load-limited design
@ K
1c
=45
c Y
K
C
t
o
1
<
M1 = K
1c
c YR
tK
R
t
p
C
safe
t
o
1
< <
MPa p
safe
81 . 3 <
safe
But this design is NOT FAIL SAFE!!!!
t
pR
= o
MPa
t
pR
design
90 = = o
Chapter 8-
Yield before break-design
c Y
K
C
t
o
1
<
Requires the stress to cause
failure be less than o
y
2
1
2
1
(
(

<
y
C
K
Y
c
o t
(
(

<
y
C
K
M
o
1
4
y
y
safe
C
K
R Y R
t
p
o t
o
2
2
1
1
< <
Again this design is NOT FAIL
SAFE!!!!
Leak before break-design
c Y
K
C
t
o
1
<
Set 2c=t, so
2 2
1
2
y
C
Y
K
t
to
>
(
(

=
y
C
K
M
o
2
1
5
Chapter 8-
Chapter 8-
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 T
melt
Deformation changes with time.
21
Adapted from
Figs. 8.26 and 8.27,
Callister 6e.
CREEP
Chapter 8-
Most of component life spent here.
Strain rate is constant at a given T, o
--strain hardening is balanced by recovery
22
stress exponent (material parameter)
strain rate
activation energy for creep
(material parameter)
applied stress material const.
Strain rate
increases
for larger T, o
10
20
40
100
200
Steady state creep rate (%/1000hr)
10
-2
10
-1 1
c
s
Stress (MPa)
427C
538C
649C
Adapted from
Fig. 8.29, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.29 is from
Metals Handbook:
Properties and
Selection: Stainless
Steels, Tool Materials,
and Special Purpose
Metals, Vol. 3, 9th ed.,
D. Benjamin (Senior
Ed.), American
Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)

c
s
= K
2
o
n
exp
Q
c
RT
|
\

|
.
|
.
SECONDARY CREEP
Chapter 8-
Failure:
along grain boundaries.
23
time to failure (rupture)
function of
applied stress
temperature

T(20 +log t
r
) = L
applied
stress
g.b. cavities
Time to rupture, t
r
Estimate rupture time
S 590 Iron, T = 800C, o = 20 ksi

T(20 +log t
r
) = L
1073K
24x10
3
K-log hr
Ans: t
r
= 233hr
Adapted from
Fig. 8.45, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.45 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952).)
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)
CREEP FAILURE
Chapter 8- 24
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
-for noncyclic o and T < 0.4T
m
, failure stress decreases with:
increased maximum flaw size,
decreased T,
increased rate of loading.
-for cyclic o:
cycles to fail decreases as Ao increases.
-for higher T (T > 0.4T
m
):
time to fail decreases as o or T increases.
SUMMARY (I)
Chapter 8-
SUMMARY (II)