S4PAKSWISSIANS

Steel vs. Plastics: The Competition for

Light-Vehicle Fuel Tanks
Peter J. Alvarado
As weight and cost savings drive changes in performance criteria for automotive
materials, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are taking a harder look at the
historically terne-coated steel used for gas tanks. This article compares steel and plastic
for gas tank uses according to performance attributes and a competitive analysis.
Legislation issues and current OEM activity are included.

INTRODUCTION
Historically, terne-coated steel (an 8% tin-lead coating) has been the mainstay for
automotive gas tanks; however, several issues are changing the performance criteria that
must be met and, thus, threaten the application of steel products. The drivers for a
material change are legislation, increased required part life to ten years/241,350
kilometers, permeability, weight, packaging, safety, and cost. In this article, the
performance attributes of the plastic and steel alternatives are reviewed from an original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) perspective in the critical areas of manufacturability,
cost, design, weight, safety, corrosion, and recyclability.
A comparative analysis of the various plastic and steel alternatives indicates that steel
remains a cost-effective material that meets all of the required performance criteria. A
more specific cost comparison of the new plastic tanks (i.e., multilayer or barrier coated)
with the new steel tanks is still required. Many of the drivers such as lead reduction, clean
fuels, permeability, and weight are a direct result of legislative and regulatory pressures
described in the Issues sidebar.
\

Figure 1. The 1998 and 2003

projections of plastics usage in fuel
tanks, based on the Delphi VII
report.

PLASTIC FUEL TANKS

Since the mid-1980s, automakers have been displacing coated-steel fuel tanks with
plastic ones. During the 1993 model year, approximately 2.7-3 million cars and trucks
built in North America used nonmetallic tanks. This represents 22-25% of the market,
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compared to 16% in 1990. By comparison, the European market uses 70-90% plastic
tanks, and the Japanese market uses 5% plastic tanks4 (Figure 1).
Although plastic-tank applications have experienced some reversals as a result of the
stricter permeation standards, some experts believe their usage will gain momentum by
the end of the decade as new plastics technology is converted to commercially feasible
operations. The Delphi VII report by the University of Michigan indicates that experts
predict plastic tanks will capture 28% of the North American market by the end of 1996
and up to 50% of the market by 2000.5 However, this projection needs to be tempered
with the higher manufacturing cost and recyclability issues of the multilayer plastic tanks
that will be required to meet the stricter permeation standards.
This projection is considered as the worst-case scenario for steel if the industry fails to
provide the OEMs with a cost-effective steel alternative that meets all of the performance
criteria. Table I indicates the production volume of vehicles built in North America;6
Table II shows the estimated number of plastic gas tank units (according to Delphi VII
projections) and their impact on steel shipments.
As of 1993, the steel industry lost the opportunity to ship about 34,473 tonnes of steel as
a result of plastics gains in gas-tank applications. In the worst-case scenario, continued
acceptance of plastic gas tanks will increase steel's loss to 71,667 tonnes in 2000—an
additional 43,544 tonnes. This means that annual shipment of 125,191 tonnes of steel will
be reduced by better than a third to a total of about 81,646 tonnes per year.
Table I. Actual and Projected Car and Light Truck Production in North America (in
thousands)6
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Cars 7,474 8,141 9,050 9,775 9,960 10,125 10,280 10,358 10,435
Light
5,033 5,709 6,535 6,749 6,923 7,008 7,088 7,103 7,117
Trucks
Total 12,507 13,850 15,585 16,524 16,883 17,133 17,368 17,461 17,552

Table II. Projected Plastic Gas Tank Share

Based on the Delphi VII Scenario
Steel Change Change
Share Steel No.
Lost Incre. Cum.
(%) of Tanks
(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
20 2,501,000 28,365 - -
22 3,047,000 34,552 6,187 6,187
24 3,740,000 42,414 7,862 14,049 PLASTICS
26 4,296,000 48,717 6,303 20,352
28 4,727,000 53,605 4,888 25,240
TECHNOLOGY
30 5,140,000 58,284 4,679 29,919
32 5,558,000 63,022 4,738 34,657
34 5,937,000 67,319 4,297 38,954
36 6,319,000 71,651 4,332 43,286
Incre.—incremental; Cum.—cumulative.
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High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been the resin of choice for plastic gas tanks, and
production capacity has been on the increase. Kautex of Canada built a new plant in
Avilla, Indiana, to meet anticipated increases in demand for plastic automotive fuel tanks.
Production was scheduled for 400,000 tanks in 1994 and eventually will be boosted to
between 600,000 and 700,000 units per year.7 These plastic tanks are currently being used
on Chrysler's Jeep Cherokee and T300 trucks.
Belgium-based Solvay is the exclusive supplier of plastic fuel tanks to General Motors'
Saturn Division. Solvay has also expanded their Canadian subsidiary in Blenheim,
Ontario, and installed two new blow-molding machines to make HDPE tanks for the
Chrysler's LH series and Viper sports car. Chrysler expects to sell 300,000 LH vehicles,
all with HDPE tanks that offer more volume capacity than steel tanks. Monolayer-HDPE
tanks offer long-term structural integrity but will not meet future permeation
requirements. Chrysler started to switch in 1995 to multilayered HDPE to meet the more
stringent SHED test.
The emergence of new technologies has enabled the increase of plastic gas tanks. These
new technologies can be grouped into either multilayer or barrier types.

Multilayer Technology
Some manufacturers see multilayer tank technology as the answer to stricter emission
standards. Ford uses six-layer fuel tanks made of HDPE and, at one point, considered a
$110 million investment in machinery and equipment to produce the tanks (which would
have been the first commercial use of coextruded tanks). However, Ford decided to
increase steel-tank stamping capacity at Dearborn; the Explorer and the new F-150 truck
(PN96) gas tanks have been switched back from plastic to zinc-nickel coated steel.8
Kautex is supplying Ford's facility in Milan, Michigan, with this six-layer technology.
The tanks are designed to meet California's stricter evaporative fuel standards and consist
of an inner layer of HDPE joined by an adhesive layer and barrier layer of polyamide or
ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer. An additional adhesive layer is joined by a layer of
"regrind" and an outer layer of HDPE.
Walbro Automotive Corporation began commercial production of multilayer plastic fuel
tanks for 1995 models. Annual production of these multilayer tanks is expected to reach
500,000 units by 1998. Their tank uses a barrier layer of ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
that is sandwiched between two layers of HDPE.9
 LEGISLATION AND REGULATORY
ISSUES
A number of federal and state legislative and
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regulatory actions have been initiated to promote the
use of cleaner automotive fuels such as reformulated
gasoline, methanol, ethanol, and natural gas. In 1988,
Barrier Technology the U.S. Department of Transportation introduced a
Air Products and Chemicals of Allentown, Clean Fuels Grant Program for local transit authorities.
The Alternative Motor Fuels Act of the same year
Pennsylvania, has commercialized a established production incentives and a federal
fluorine-based barrier technology that purchase plan for alternative fuel vehicles. Later, the
enables plastic fuel tank manufacturers to Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 established fleet
meet more stringent emissions standards. mandates to reduce emissions from the primary source
The SHED tests completed in 1992 on of air pollution (i.e., vehicles). Two years later, the
Energy Policy Act of 1992 encouraged the use of
Airoguard plastic tanks produced by alternative-fuel vehicles or flexible-fuel vehicles
Kautex of Canada indicated hydrocarbon (FFVs) to reduce oil imports and increase the use of
permeation rates as low as 0.1 g/24 h— U.S. sourced and renewable fuels. In addition, future
significantly lower than rates for tanks increases in Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
using previously available barrier will add pressure to lighten every vehicle component,
including gas tanks. These issues and stricter U.S.
technology. The performance of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fuel-
Airoguard tanks compares with multilayer permeation standards are challenging the designs and
extrusion tanks while maintaining the materials used in vehicle fuel tanks.
long-term structural integrity of Flexible-Fuel Vehicles
monolayer tanks.10 The automotive industry has been pursuing ways to
Solvay Automotive of Troy, Michigan, has meet the legislative and regulatory pressures to reduce
emissions in the form of FFVs capable of running with
developed technology to keep HDPE tank methanol/gasoline mixtures. However, testing has
emissions down to 0.2 g/24 h or less, even verified that neither bare nor painted terne will resist
with methanol-containing fuels.11 Using the corrosion effects of alcohol (methanol or ethanol)-
technology called Solvay-optimized based fuels for the expected life of the vehicle—
fluorination, Solvay equals or exceeds the 241,350 km or ten years.
permeation performance of coextrusion The actual methanol fuel considered was M85 (85%
with EVOH barrier resin. Solvay methanol, 15% gasoline); however, this fuel has
continues to add multilayer capacity to recently lost popularity because, although it costs about
meet Chrysler's requirements. the same as gasoline, it offers only half the energy
density by volume. In the case of ethanol, the EPA and
Aero Tec Laboratories of Ramsey, New others estimate wholesale costs between $1.50 and
$2.10 per gallon.1
Jersey, has developed a semiflexible
safety fuel tank made from an undisclosed More recently, natural gas has pushed high methanol
olefin compound of polymers and and ethanol fuels to a very distant second and third in
antidiffusion-barrier additives.12 The tank popularity. Natural gas is affordable—$0.70 worth
provides the same energy of one gallon of gasoline.
can be used for race cars and military Additionally, it produces no evaporative emissions and
vehicles as well as general automotive meets ultralow tailpipe emissions.2 Furthermore, there
aftermarkets. is already a pipeline infrastructure which, coupled to a
low-cost compressor, would allow owners to refill at
STEEL FUEL TANKS home. However, compressed natural gas cylinders are
bulky and heavy, thus reducing space and range.
North American auto manufacturers are Natural-gas vehicles, like electric vehicles and hybrids,
currently supplied with tanks comprising a stress the need for weight reduction to achieve the
same performance of driveability and range as current
steel substrate coated with either terne or automobiles. So do hydrogen-powered vehicles, which
zinc-nickel. In all, about 125,191 tonnes represent another alternative that requires heavy tanks.
of steel substrate per year are applied to The need for lightening this type of vehicle also
gas tanks. increases the possibility of alternative materials
substitution for steel parts in other components
throughout the vehicle.

Permeability/Evaporative Emissions
Three types of evaporative emissions are being studied:
refueling vapor, running (non-tailpipe) emissions, and
permeation. Also, because of environmental pressures,
the materials used to contain the fuel and deliver it to
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Stainless steel tanks have been tested, and although effective in flexible fuels, they are
difficult to form without severe breakage occurring during stamping. Also, stainless steel
is expensive, with an estimated cost ratio to terne steel exceeding 5:1.
The electrocoated zinc-nickel product is painted on both sides with an aluminum-rich
epoxy. Industry accelerated tests on the corrosion of painted zinc-nickel confirm that it
will meet a ten-year life in current fuels and flex-fuels and resist external corrosion.
Testing the characteristics of painted galvanneal (zinc-iron alloy coated steel) have found
it effective for resisting corrosion on both the inside and outside surfaces of the tank.
General Motors has a product undergoing testing.
Hot-dipped tin has also been found to be effective for resisting all fuels, but it does
require a paint coating for exterior protection from road-induced corrosion. This product
welds faster than painted terne and has a better potential for good solderability than
painted galvanneal and zinc-nickel coated steel substrates, permitting the attachment of
fuel filler tubes and other lines.

PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTES: PLASTIC VERSUS

STEEL
Manufacturability
Terne plate holds a materials cost advantage over HDPE: $0.66-0.79/kg vs. $0.86-
1.08/kg.13 The cost of the material is not the only driver; consideration includes the net
cost of the fabricated tank and its reliability within the total fuel system of the vehicle,
including the tank, filler tube, level control, baffles, the housing reservoir for the sending
unit, and other assorted tubing, fittings, and seals from the tank to the engine. All of these
components must function properly with the various fuel types and for the life of the car.
Unforeseen corrosion can easily contaminate the fuel delivery system and cause costly
repairs.
Manufacturing costs for either tank material seem conflicting, depending on the source.
Nevertheless, due to the invested capital of OEMs on stamping, welding, and assembly
equipment for metal tanks, their cost structure indicates a lower cost per piece on steel
tanks versus plastic ones, with the latter usually being outsourced (except for some Ford
models).
Plastic tanks are formed by blowing a thick continuous tube of HDPE within a mold that
determines the final shape of the virtually seamless part, which could include the filler
neck. The blowing molds are cast from aluminum and cost considerably less than
machined steel dies used to stamp steel tanks. In general, four or more molds are
integrated into one rotary style blow-molding machine to achieve the desired productivity
(i.e., one station blows while the other one cools). Typically, the OEMs outsource the
plastic tanks to various suppliers who bid for the business. The plastic tank manufacturer
also has to either chlorinate or fluorinate the plastic to retard permeation, and both
processes can be highly toxic if mishandled. This represents additional OSHA
requirements, which add to the cost of the tank.
 TANK MATERIALS AND ORIGINAL
EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS
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Chrysler
Chrysler made the decision to outsource plastic tanks in 1988
Design Features and Weight and, given recent developments in multilayer HDPE
technology, they remain committed to plastic tanks. The listed
Plastic tanks have the ability to advantages of plastic over steel according to Chrysler include
meet packaging constraints with lack of corrosion concerns, easier packaging, ability to design
complex shapes, and design thickness where needed, and lower weight. Whether all of
these attributes offset the higher unit cost of plastic tanks
engineers have greater flexibility in
remains uncertain. Their plans indicate that all of their tanks
the car design and styling without will be made of plastic by the end of 1996. Eventually, all
having to worry about fitting the plastic HDPE or sulfonated HDPE tanks will have to be
gas tank. The plastic tank could switched to the more expensive and slower-to-process
virtually be made to fit whatever coextruded ethylene-vinyl alcohol/HDPE layered tanks—a
must for the tanks to pass stricter permeability standards. This
cavities are left by the design. Other
mandatory switch represents an opportunity for steel tanks,
attachments to and within the which will be more cost competitive against the coextruded
plastic tank require gasketed plastic tanks.
mechanical joints. However, plastic Ford
swells with constant exposure to Ford's timetable calls for a switch to Zn-Ni-coated steel from
organic liquids and vapor, thus terne-coated steel tanks in all their models by 1997. Ford is
making the joints very critical in the currently using Zn-Ni on the Bronco, Grand Marquis,
event of repairing the tank Explorer, the new F-150 (PN96), and the new Taurus
(DN101). The switch to Zn-Ni will also include the plastic
hardware. tank in the current Escort/Tracer but other models with plastic
The average gas tank for a compact tanks will remain the same (e.g., Ranger, Windstar, Aerostar,
automobile (e.g., Nissan Altima) and Contour/Mystique).
can boast weight savings of up to General Motors
30% versus a similar steel tank.14 General Motors has an ongoing corrosion test program that
However, Cadillac claims that includes two-side painted Zn-Ni, hot-dipped galvanneal, and
although their plastic tanks allow hot-dipped tin. Zn-Ni-coated tanks are currently used on the J
(Cavalier/Sunfire) and N platforms (Grand Am/Skylark) and
design flexibility with increased the new fullsize van (GMT 600) launched in November 1995.
safety, they do not achieve any The company's current plans include a conversion of all of
weight savings over steel tanks.15 their current terne fuel tanks to either Zn-Ni or galvanneal fuel
These two examples seem to tanks by 2000.
contradict the general view that
plastic's weight advantage increases
with the size of the tank. On the other hand, the new permeability requirement is
expected to diminish the weight advantage of plastics.

Safety
One critical part of the performance criteria of the tank is its ability to meet crash
requirements. Generally, plastic tanks are considered safer in crashes because they are
seamless and, thus, not prone to failures in the vulnerable seam areas. They are not a
source of sparks. Also, plastic tanks deform and have some ability to rebound back to
shape. When steel tanks absorb energy and deform, the pressure within the tank increases
as the volume decreases. This makes them vulnerable at welded or clamped areas where
failure can potentially occur.
The thermal properties of the chosen material are also an issue, especially due to the
proliferation of injector fuel delivery systems, where a portion of the unused fuel
delivered by the gas pump is returned to the gas tank at "engine-hot" temperatures. At the
same time, the tank must withstand extreme temperatures in North America from -40°C
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to 79°C in-tank temperatures. The 79°C temperature not only exceeds the boiling point of
the alcohol fuels, but also creates sagging problems for plastic (especially under the
weight of a filled tank) while the extreme cold introduces potential cracking problems. As
a result, OEMs resort to heavier gauge plastic, negating at least some of the weight
advantage, and must also use support brackets and special shields against the heat of local
sources like an inferior or perforated muffler or tailpipe. High ambient temperatures
underneath the car remain a consideration.
Plastic acts as an insulator to retard heat transfer to the fuel when compared to a steel
tank. In the case of an under-car fire, plastic tanks will retard the rise in fuel temperature,
but they will soften, sag, and eventually release the fuel. A steel tank does not sag in a
fire; however, the fuel temperature may rise rapidly, perhaps resulting in over
pressurization and release of fuel through a mechanical fitting. The American Iron and
Steel Institute reports16 that a series of more than 75 tests undertaken by the National Fire
Prevention Research Foundation and Factory Mutual Research Corporation indicated that
plastic containers storing flammable or combustible liquids in general purpose
warehouses fail abruptly when exposed to a small fire. This failure results in a rapidly
developing spill fire that overpowers conventional sprinkler systems. The same tests
conducted with flammable and combustible liquids stored in steel containers resulted in
no spill fire, no excessive temperatures, no content involvement, and no significant loss
of visibility due to smoke. The fires involving the steel containers extinguished
themselves. These findings have led to a return to steel containers from plastics for safety
and fire insurance cost reasons. It is not known if tests have been conducted by OEMs to
compare the performance of steel and plastic tanks in under-car fire situations.

Corrosion
Corrosion is a well-known concern on both the inside and outside surfaces of tanks. The
outside surfaces and supporting structure are exposed to road chemicals, salt, mud, and
gravel. The corrosion issue is critical with zinc-coated products that replace terne plate
because of their sacrificial nature, which puts an even higher demand on the quality of the
barrier film for both inside and outside surfaces. In contrast, the HDPE gas tanks are inert
to the corrosive environments inside and outside the tank.
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Table III. Competitive Materials Analysis for Gas Tanks

Performance Attributes
Recyclability, safety, corrosion resistance in methanol fuels, and weight
Manufacturing Issues
Cost, formability/shape flexibility, weldability
Steel
• Terne-Coated Steel

o Advantages: Low cost at high volumes, recyclable, materials cost, and

permeability
o Disadvantages: Shape flexibility, ineffective corrosion protection from
methanol fuel, lead-containing coating
• Electrocoated Zn-Ni and Galvanneal

o Advantages: Low cost at high volumes, recyclable, effective inside and

outside corrosion protection, material cost, and permeability
o Disadvantages: Weldability and shape flexibility

• Hot-Dipped Tin

o Advantages: Low cost at high volumes, recyclable, effective inside and

outside corrosion protection, material cost, permeability, and weldability
o Disadvantage: Shape flexibility

• Stainless Steel

o Advantages: Corrosion, recycable, and permeability

o Disadvantages: Cost at all volumes, formability, and joinability

Plastics
• HDPE

o Advantages: Shape flexibility, low tooling costs at low volumes, weight, and
corrosion resistance
o Disadvantages: High tooling costs at high volumes, high material cost,
permeability, and recyclability
• Multilayer and Barrier HDPE

o Advantages: Shape flexibility, low tooling costs at low volumes, weight,

corrosion resistance, and permeability
o Disadvantages: Higher tooling costs at high volumes, higher material cost,
and harder to recycle
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Recyclability
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act discourages the use of materials that
cannot be recycled and might end up in landfills.17 As a result, automotive-design
engineers must not only meet customer, design, styling, cost, weight, and regulatory
needs but also environmental criteria. All materials suppliers must show that their product
is not only lighter and cost effective but also recyclable. In this respect, plastics must
work the hardest to show that they are recyclable and have the ability to be recovered in
vehicle disassembly in a cost-effective manner. To accomplish these objectives,
automotive designers must develop prototypes that can be disassembled easily into the
various material groups that have a recycling infrastructure.
Despite progress in recycling, the proliferation of plastics in automotive applications
faces some hurdles.
• The absence of a plastics recycling infrastructure. The infrastructure for
recovering and recycling the ferrous content of cars is well established—70-80%
of a typical passenger car is recoverable steel and iron.
• The molding process for plastic fuel tanks. As is the case for other ap-plications,
this process results in roughly 30% of plastic material ending as industrial waste.18
• The necessary sorting of the various plastics types since mixing types can ruin the
batch. This is not a problem with steel—the scrap industry recycles 10.8 million
tonnes per year of shredded automotive iron and steel, which is used to make new
steel products.19
• The lack of technology that dismantlers can use to quickly collect various plastics.
The current infrastructure of automobile dismantlers, shredders, and scrap-metal
processors is steel dominated and relies on magnetic separation and inexpensive
shredding equipment for efficient and low-cost processing. In the case of terne gas
tanks, the units are removed from the car, flattened, baled, and sent either to
special operators that can reclaim the lead or to the steel mill.
• Cost. Recycled plastics are not cost competitive with virgin plastics.20
While the recycling of HDPE gas tanks is easier to tackle in terms of dismantling and
avoiding type mixing, these tanks will not meet the new evaporative emissions standards.
The barrier-type and multilayer tanks that will meet such standards can pose a bigger
challenge to recycle in a cost-effective manner.

COMPETITIVE ANALYSIS
Table III summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of steel and plastic with respect
to the performance and manufacturing objectives for gas-tank applications. The
comparative analysis of the performance attributes of the various plastic and steel
alternatives indicates that steel products still represent a cost-effective material that meets
all the required performance criteria of gasoline tanks. A description of current OEM tank
activity is described in the sidebar.
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References
1. Timothy T. Maxwell and Jesse C. Jones, Alternative Fuels: Emissions, Economics and Performance
(Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1995), pp. 29-42.
2. Robert Q. Riley, Alternative Cars in the 21st Century (Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1994), pp. 173-176.
3. Bundy International, "Fuel Supply Systems for a Healthier Environment", ed. Michael Scarlett,
Automotive Technology International '94, pp. 37-40.
4. "Plastic Bounces Back in Fuel Tanks," Automotive News (January 30, 1995).
5. Delphi VII Forecast and Analysis of the North American Automotive Industry (Ann Arbor, MI: Office for
the Study of Automotive Transportation, University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, 1994),
pp. 71-75.
6. Automotive Outlook: June 1995, (West Chester, PA: Autofacts, Inc.), pp. 4-1, 5-1.
7. "Canadian Blow Molder Expands to U.S.," Canadian Plastics (February 1993).
8. "Ford's Plastic Plant Eyes $110 Investment in Gas Tanks," Plastic Week (August 10, 1992).
9. "Supplier Profile: Walbro Entering Fuel Tank Market; Manufacturer Looks to Double Sales," Ward's
Automotive Reports (August 24, 1992).
10. "Air Products Develops Technology that Helps Plastic Fuel Tank Manufacturers Meet More Stringent
Emission Standards," Waste Treatment Technology News (December 1992).
11. "Gas Tank Molder Unfazed by CARB," Plastics World (May 1992).
12. "AeroTec Fuel Tanks Designed for Safety," Plastics News (April 12, 1993).
13. "Cadillac Unveils Shift from Terne to Plastics," American Metal Market (January 27, 1992).
14. "Plastic Gas Tank Field is Filling Up," Plastics News (May 11, 1992).
15. "Allante to Use Plastic Tank," Plastics News (January 13, 1992).
16. Steel, the Safe Solution for Flamable Liquid Storage, CN-06, (Washington, D.C.: AISI, 1990).
17. "Recycling and the Automobile," Automotive Engineering (October 1993), pp. 42-50.
18. Asian Autotech Report, 186, (3) (1994), p. 11.
19. "Steel Recycling Increases in '94," American Metal Market (April 5, 1995), p. 10.
20. "Missing Link; Lack of Infrastructure Poses Huge Hurdle to Plans to Recycle Auto Plastics,"
Automotive News (Supplier Spotlight) (March 14, 1994).