Theory Theories are constructed in order to explain, predict and master phenomena (e.g. relationships, events, or the behavior).

In many instances we are constructing models of reality. A theory makes generalizations about observations and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models.

Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research, determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for. Theoretical frameworks are obviously critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of studies (see Kinds of Research for more information). In those kinds of studies, the theoretical framework must be very specific and well-thought out. Surprisingly, theoretical frameworks are also important in exploratory studies, where you really don't know much about what is going on, and are trying to learn more. There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important here. First, no matter how little you think you know about a topic, and how unbiased you think you are, it is impossible for a human being not to have preconceived notions, even if they are of a very general nature. For example, some people fundamentally believe that people are basically lazy and untrustworthy, and you have keep your wits about you to avoid being conned. These fundamental beliefs about human nature affect how you look things when doing personnel research. In this sense, you are always being guided by a theoretical framework, but you don't know it. Not knowing what your real framework is can be a problem. The framework tends to guide what you notice in an organization, and what you don't notice. In other words, you don't even notice things that don't fit your framework! We can never completely get around this problem, but we can reduce the problem considerably by simply making our implicit framework explicit. Once it is explicit, we can deliberately consider other frameworks, and try to see the organizational situation through different lenses.

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. For example, the philosopher Isaiah Berlin used the "hedgehogs" versus "foxes" approach;[1] a "hedgehog" might approach the world in terms of a single organizing principle; a "fox" might pursue multiple conflicting goals simultaneously. Alternatively, an empiricist might approach a subject by direct examination, whereas an intuitionist might simply intuit what's next.[2] Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a type of intermediate theory that attempt to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis). Conceptual frameworks can act like maps that give

coherence to empirical inquiry. Because conceptual frameworks are potentially so close to empirical inquiry, they take different forms depending upon the research question or problem. Several types of conceptual frameworks have been identified,[3][4] such as

Working hypothesis Descriptive Categories Practical ideal types Models of operations research Formal hypotheses

These are linked to particular research purposes such as:[5]

Exploration or Exploratory research Description or Descriptive research Gauging Decision making Explanation Prediction

Proponents claim that when purpose and framework are aligned, other aspects of empirical research such as methodological choices and statistical techniques become simpler to identify. Frameworks have also been used to explain conflict theory and the balance necessary to reach what amounts to resolution. Within these conflict frameworks, visible and invisible variables function under concepts of relevance. Boundaries form and within these boundaries, tensions regarding laws and chaos (or freedom) are mitigated. These frameworks often function like cells, with sub-frameworks, stasis, evolution and revolution
.

The term theory is used in a number of ways. For this course, the term will be employed in expressions such as classical mechanics, perfect competition, elite, pluralist, subgovenment, elite and systems theories. All of these theories are characterized by, a systematically related set of statements, including some law-like generalizations, that is empirically testable (Ruder, Richard, The Philosophy of Social Science, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1966, p.10.). A clear understanding of this definition requires delving into its key terms and concepts (empiric, empirical, fact, generalizations, generalize, law, statements, summary, state, statement, systematic and testable). Their definitions are listed in the subsequent classification of definitions.

Basic Phrases in Theory Two:

A set of propositions depicts the first phrase in theory two. It sets forth two or more proposals for consideration or acceptance (for examples, refer to set of statements in basic phrases for theory one). The second phrase for theory two is described as an attempt to explain individual, group or organizational behavior. This phrase refers to giving meaning, reasons or interpretations for the

suitability of individual, group or organizational conduct (for examples, refer to law-like generalizations in basic phrases in theory one).

The Introduction of Theoretical Concepts:

A theoretical concept may be introduced in at least three ways. The first is to set forth a specific definition for the concept. A second approach to the introduction of a theoretical concept is to specify a sufficient condition in the theory that represents a sufficient condition for its application. Finally, present the concept in ways that go beyond definitions and the specification of a theoretical condition A PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: 1. Specify the way your major paper matches (does not match) other studies. 2. Identify and describe the underlying theory that determines the structure of the major paper. 3. Explain the relationship of the problem to the theoretical framework. 4. Describe and explain the relationship of the problem to previous research or studies. Optional: Present alternative hypotheses that might function within the framework of the theory. .