Wind Balance Report Siemens 161208

Statnett SF Balance Management
Technical Report
V02
Siemens AS Energy Sector Power Distribution Division, T&D Service Power Technologies International Project reference Date Editors Office address Phone Fax E-Mail A20125 16. December 2008 Mr. Nemanja Krajisnik Mr. Haakon Engen Mr. Steve Stapleton Bratsbergveien 5 7493 Trondheim, Norway +47 73 95 92 58 +47 73 95 90 70 haakon.engen@siemens.com / steve.stapleton@siemens.com / nemanja.krajisnik@siemens.com
Siemens PTI Network Consulting

Answers for energy.
Summary
The main task of this project is to investigate the consequences for the balance management if the intended amount of wind power will be installed and operated in the Norwegian transmission network. The information derived in this report will provide Statnett a basis of valuable information understanding some of the consequences larger amount of wind power, installed in the power system, will have on the long term planning and daily operation. Due to the variability of wind, integration of wind power will give greater variations of energy production. This means that the operators need better prediction tools for wind power production to be able to balance the system. The system operator has to increase the reserves to be prepared to compensate for unpredicted power balance variations, whether they come from wind power generation or load consumption variations. Today the consumption in Norway constitutes the largest deviation with respect to the balance. The consumption is the most significant source of uncertainty due to the strong correlation with the temperature. If larger amounts of wind power are introduced to the power system, this will increase the deviation between the forecast prognosis and the operation hour. The quantification of necessary additional reserves for prognosis uncertainty can be done by an analytical approach with statistical measures using time series of wind production and other system variables. The wind power production is the variable which is most difficult to define, since the forecast error is different depending on which time horizon we are looking at. Analyses have been conducted of load data provided by Statnett, and determined a standard deviation of forecast error margin of 2,4% for day-ahead planning. Since the data of wind power production was missing and due to limited time frame, it was concluded to use the forecast error margin obtained in the DENA-study. The standard deviation of wind power forecast error for day-ahead planning was determined in the DENA-study to be 7,2%. Simulations for 5 different cases are carried out to determine the required additional reserve. The frequency response diagrams for the different cases and reference cases can be found in Chapter 5. The new regulating force has been calculated based on the power imbalance and frequency deviation for each case. Based on the calculated results from the simulations and the statistical assessment of prognosis uncertainty, the required additional reserves for each scenario are:
Wind power production of 3500MW would require a total increase of reserve of 228 MW. Wind power production of 7000MW would require a total increase of reserve of 878 MW.
The calculated reserves are considered to be worst case based on available information today. Development of new technology regarding control strategy, research and development of better prediction methodology and prediction tool, will probably improve the situation. The
A20125 Siemens AS, E D SE PTI
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forecast error margin of wind power production will decrease based on higher accuracy in prediction, and implementation of control logic to wind farms to simulate the droop and conventional frequency control, will increase the flexibility of the power system and ease the daily operation for the transmission system operator.
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Table of Contents
Summary .............................................................................................................................2 Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................4 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 2 2.1 2.2 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4 4.1 4.2 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Introduction ........................................................................................................6 Background ..................................................................................................... 6 Goal ................................................................................................................ 6 General description of work .............................................................................. 7 The Norwegian power system........................................................................... 7 General overview of the power system.............................................................. 7 Growth of wind power ..................................................................................... 8 Available reserve categories.............................................................................. 9 Consequences of wind power generation to the main grid ............................11 System perspective .........................................................................................11 Power system control principles and requirements............................................13 The need of regulating reserves in Norway.....................................................15 Introduction....................................................................................................15 Prognosis Uncertainty......................................................................................15 Forecast error of wind power and load .............................................................15 Statistical approach .........................................................................................17 Results............................................................................................................18 Future trading market .....................................................................................18 Description of input data ..................................................................................20 Network data and exchange scenarios............................................................. 20 Ramping values.............................................................................................. 22 Study analyses ..................................................................................................25 Assumptions and considerations ..................................................................... 25 Inertial & Governor response load flow (INLF) .................................................. 25 Analyzed scenarios ......................................................................................... 28 Base case scenario.......................................................................................... 29 Scenario of 3500 MW of wind generation........................................................ 32
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5.6 6 7 7.1 7.2
Scenario of 7000 MW of wind generation.........................................................37 Findings.............................................................................................................42 Conclusion.........................................................................................................46 Main conclusions ........................................................................................... 46 Proposal of future work .................................................................................. 48
Literature ...........................................................................................................................49 Appendix ...........................................................................................................................50 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Description of primary and secondary control...............................................50 Nordel harmonised balance management....................................................51 Dynamic data ............................................................................................ 52 Description of network model .....................................................................53 Wind turbine generator technologies...........................................................55
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1
1.1
Introduction
Background
Since the 1990s there has been a rapid growth of wind power in the world. Wind power is an unreliable energy resource which can vary widely for different areas, and also within the same site. The wind conditions in Norway are well suited for production of wind power. Today, it is installed approximately 420 MW wind power in Norway with an annual production of 0,9TWh [1]. There are plans for a considerable increase in the installed power along the whole Norwegian coast. A power system with large amounts of wind power will give Statnett, as system operator, big challenges. This is related both to the long term planning and as well the daily operation of the power system. Consequently, Statnett started in 2006 a research and development project on integration of new energy sources in the power system. A part of this project is to investigate operational consequences with new energy sources integrated in the power system.
1.2
Goal
The main task of this project is to investigate the consequences for the balance management if the intended amount of wind power will be installed and operated in the Norwegian transmission network. The information derived in this report will provide Statnett a basis of valuable information understanding some of the impacts larger amount of installed wind power will have on the long term planning and daily operation of the power system. The study includes:
Estimation of additional reserve requirements for Norway.
Prognosis uncertainty Frequency controlled normal operation reserve Frequency controlled disturbance reserve The aspects of different time horizon for planning of daily operation Utilization of secondary reserve Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
Forecast accuracy evaluation Consideration regarding secondary control-aspects
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1.3
General description of work
Due to the limited time frame, it was decided only to run simulations of peak load conditions and not considering bottlenecks. The following scenarios will be studied and investigated:
Base case, 0 MW wind power generation 3500 MW of wind power generation 7000 MW of wind power generation
The work will mainly be performed with the network tool PSSE, both power flow and dynamic studies. In addition research has been performed to acquire necessary information to be able to decide suitable error margin values and ramping values used in this report. To include the effect of wind power, various aspects have to be assessed; it is important to look at geographical diversity of wind farm locations and the weather pattern and forecast in the different areas to model the influence and expected wind variation and the possible consequences that can occur in the network based on changing conditions. Another important aspect is the different wind turbine technologies and the advantages/disadvantages these may have on system performance.
1.4
1.4.1
The Norwegian power system

General overview of the power system
Norway is one of the longest countries in the world, 1700km, and relatively few inhabitants compared to the size. The major part of the population is mainly settled in south, south-east of Norway, and the production is mainly along the western coast and northern part of Norway. That means major amount of the energy has to be transferred by overhead lines to southern part of Norway. The electricity power system in Norway is divided in three levels.
Main Grid Regional Grid Distribution Grid
Statnett in the capacity of transmission system operator is responsible to maintain, operate and develop the main grid and the belonging substation in Norway and the foreign interconnections. The main grid exists of mainly 300 and 420 kV. The generation in Norway today consists of 98% hydro and 2% thermal energy. The total production of electricity in 2007 was 137,7 TWh, where the wind power production come to 0,9 TWh.[1]
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Figure 1.1 Map of Nordel-system [20]
1.4.2
Growth of wind power
Today the installed capacity of wind power is about 420 MW in Norway with an annual production in 2007 of 0,9 TWh. Norway has one of the best conditions for production of wind power in the world. Along the Norwegian coast, Kristiansand in south and further up north to Finnmark there are many locations with excellent wind conditions, well suited for wind farms. There are considerable plans for increasing the wind power production. The expected wind power may increase to about 10000 MW based on the amount reported to NVE (Norwegian Water and Energy directorate) by the parties in the market [2]. If this expected growth in wind generations should occur, it is highly dependent of government support and incentives designed to promote renewable technologies. The focus in the world today is to utilize new energy sources which have a positive environmental impact, and wind power is expected to have these effects. Both the EU directive 2001/77/EC and Kyoto-protocol is promoting renewable energy sources which will reduce the emission of carbon dioxide and oxides of sulphur from conventional, fossil-fuelled generating plants.
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A large amount of wind power will probably give other impacts on the power system than before. This is mainly because of the differences in physical and technical characteristics between wind power and conventional generation. The increasing share of wind power production will influence more or less some of the following characteristics:
Lack of inertia The lack of ability to provide operating reserve The unpredictable electrical output due to variability of wind
On the other hand, an increasing wind power production will also require reinforcements and extensions in the grid. New transmission lines have to be build to be able to the transfer the increased capacity to the load centers. The best suited wind conditions in Norway are often on locations with already weak power grid and in need of reinforcement before building the wind power farm. Wind power has a shorter construction time than building new transmission system which might give Statnett challenges both handling the policy framework and ensure the system security of the network at all times.
1.4.3
Available reserve categories
Electricity has the physical characteristic that it has to be used immediately as it is produced. Statnett as transmission system operator (TSO) in Norway is responsible to ensure balance between consumption and production all along. Statnett has to operate the power system under different conditions, including disturbances and variations in both production and consumption. The production plans given to Nord Pool once a day is the basis for the production the next day. These plans are made 12-36 hours before the operation hour, and it is therefore not unusual to have imbalances in the hour of operation because the power consumption is not as predicted the day before. Therefore Statnett and Svenska Kraftnt (TSO in Sweden) cooperate in compensating for the net unbalances that occur. To do this they have the common Nordic regulating power market, where the parties offer to regulate upward or downward a fixed MW to a given price. The frequency is a measure of balance and should be 50Hz when the system is balanced. The frequency demand in Scandinavia has to be within 50Hz 0.1. With a balance regulation equivalent to 6000MW/Hz, means that the system has a margin of all together 600MW before it will be outside the demand. This report will focus on the primary control, and the primary operating reserves in Norway will be described generally in the following: The different reserves available in the Nordel system are defined in the System Operation Agreement [3].
Frequency controlled normal operation reserve (FNR) shall be regulated upwards / downwards within 2-3 minutes. The frequency controlled normal operation reserve shall be at least 600 MW at 50.0 Hz for the synchronous system. It shall be completely activated at f = 49.9/50.1 Hz (f = +- 0.1 Hz), and it is distributed between the subsystems of the synchronous system in accordance with the annual consumption (total consumption exclusive of power plants own consumption) during the previous year. Each subsystem shall have at least 2/3 of the frequency controlled normal operation reserves in its own system in the event of splitting up and island operation. The Norwegian share of the frequency controlled normal operation reserve in 2007 was 197 MW.
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There shall be a frequency controlled disturbance reserve (FDR) of such magnitude and composition that dimensioning faults will not cause a frequency of less than 49.5 Hz in the synchronous system. The overall frequency controlled disturbance reserve must be able to be used until the fast active disturbance reserve has been activated. The frequency controlled disturbance reserve shall be activated at 49.9 Hz and be completely activated at 49.5 Hz. It must increase as good as linearly throughout the frequency range of 49.9-49.5 Hz. The major part of both the frequency controlled disturbance reserve and the frequency controlled normal operation reserve will be achieved via automatic frequency regulation for production facilities. To meet the above requirements, the objective for each respective system operator must be to place demands on turbine regulator settings, e.g. in the form of demands regarding regulating time constants. Distribution of the requirement for the frequency controlled disturbance reserve between the subsystems of the interconnected Nordic power system shall be carried out in proportion to the dimensioning fault within the respective subsystem. Distribution of the requirement shall be updated once a week or more often if necessary. The frequency controlled disturbance reserve is for the Nordel system 1160 MW, and the Norwegian share is 348 MW. The fast active disturbance reserve shall exist in order to restore the frequency controlled normal operation reserve and the frequency controlled disturbance reserve when these reserves have been used or lost, and in order to restore transmissions within applicable limits following disturbances. The fast active disturbance reserve shall be available within 15 minutes. The size of the fast active disturbance reserve is determined by individual subsystems assessment of local requirements, and the Norwegian share is 1600 MW. The slow active disturbance reserve is active power available after 15 minutes. There is no requirement attached to this reserve by the agreement. This one is also not in use in Norway.
Figure 1.2 Balancing mechanisms in the Nordel system [4]
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Consequences of wind power generation to the main grid
2.1
System perspective
Introducing wind power to the power system might have both costly and operational consequences. Wind power can affect the system security (power quality and power reliability), and the impacts can be varying over time. This can be especially expressed if wind farms do not participate in any way in two crucial loops for one power system (active powerfrequency and reactive power-voltage). This chapter contains some of the issues which can be relevant for a wind power technology from a system perspective, and will be described briefly. Uncertainty and needed regulation An increasing amount of wind power will result in higher variability and uncertainty of available generation. This will of course affect the use and allocation of reserves in the power system. The time horizon of planning is of high importance to define the needed reserves in combination with error margin of wind power, load and other production sources. In short term, the wind turbines within a wind farm will have a smoothing effect of short term output fluctuations. By increasing the geographical area including more wind farms will also experience a certain smoothing effect. The reason is that the wind will not have the same strength at all wind farms simultaneously. The requirement of balance management will depend on geographical areas, location and distribution of production and especially wind power, load variations and how the system is operated (i.e admissible ramp rates, start/stop, market mechanisms). System adequacy It is important with a sufficient static condition of the power system during peak load conditions. The long-term planning has to consider enough available generation to meet the system load demand and to allow the necessary maintenance of production units. Some are considering, or already implemented, local capacity storages of energy to ensure a reliable operation of the power system, due to larger amount and variability of wind power integrated in the power system. Especially during low load conditions and during night with sudden wind increase, it is important to have local capacity. In these conditions there could be shortage of downward regulating reserves at the Elspot, e.g. maintenance of production units or full production for export. It is expected that wind power would contribute in terms of capacity credit; however, nowadays it is still relied on reserves obtained from conventional units to cover its stochastic character.
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Adequacy of transmission grid The best wind conditions in Norway are on locations with weak transmission/distribution grid or even no grid at all. Extensions and reinforcements are needed to be able to transfer the possible amount of wind power to load centres or for export. In the same manner, it is also important to take account for the construction time, which is shorter for wind farms, than for building transmission grid. The variability of wind might lead to changes in power flow direction and bottlenecks on other places than before. To be able to still maintain a secure network operation, new FACTS 1 equipment has to be installed and also new control mechanisms. System stability The voltage and power control is depending on type of used wind turbine technology. It is likely to believe that there will be different kinds of technology used in the Norwegian system, which gives different possibilities to support the power system during normal operation and during and after disturbances. It is recommended to assess the integration of wind power from different views to be able to get enough information to determine how the network should be operated and necessary action for development of new control strategies. Congestion management Wind power generation which is connected to transmission or distribution grid can significantly increase the number of bottlenecks because of its stochastic character as well as the future trend of maximum exploitation of existing transmission capacities. Usually, problems with overloads of elements or voltages out of ranges are resolved by operational means in the power system itself, while the wind generators simply follow the conditions in the main grid (frequency, voltage). The transmission system can be loaded to the limit during winter time as well as spring time. During the spring, it is often flood and low load. Under these conditions, it is need to utilize the hydro power plants to maximum. Then the transmission system is load to the maximum from north to south. Although the control system for wind farms is completely synthesized (programmable control logic), active participation of wind generators in removal of bottlenecks is possible, but still in experimental stage. Use of wind generators as conventional sources in terms of maintaining power system stability is highly dependant on type of technology used for wind power generation. If the wind power technology continues its development, you will get larger turbines and larger wind farms of hundreds of megawatt installed capacity. This might give the system operator challenges since the wind power production will be concentrated. The smoothing effect over larger geographical areas would probably disappear, and pose problems on balance management in short-term due to wind change. On the other hand, the development of power electronics, control strategies for production, voltage and reactive power support and improved accuracy in forecasting wind power would increase the utilisation of wind power and make the system more stable. New technology would mean new requirements with respect to integration of wind power, like remain connected to grid also by nearby faults and provide reactive power support during disturbances.
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
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2.2
Power system control principles and requirements
The secondary control of balance is today only assessed manually in Norway by spinning reserves. These are reserves the parties guarantee will be operating with response time equal 1 minute within the quarter before a planned increase of production. If larger amount of wind power is introduced in the Norwegian market, it could be necessary to improve the balance and frequency control. One possibility is to introduce automatic control mechanism. The following presents some mechanism to control the set points of hydro power plants that might be possible to include in the Norwegian Power system. The cost, agreements and how this would be possible to implement is not considered. It is just a description of the mechanism and how it may work. Automatic generation control (AGC) This mechanism has two basic objectives: 1. The primary objective is matching generation to the existing system loads and the desired interchange. 2. The secondary objective is to optimize the production among individual units within same stationary group in accordance to preselected schedules. AGC can control both frequency and power beyond normal speed controlled by primary control (statics). The main purpose is to regulate the power output of electric generators within prescribed area in response to changes in system frequency, tie-line loading, or the relation of these to each other, to maintain the scheduled system frequency and/or the established interchange within predetermined limits. AGC is well-known and in operation around the world, and it is also used by the producers in the Nordel-system, but only for automatic optimization between different plants within the same stationary group. If a sudden load change should occur in the power system, the primary control will provide power to stabilize the system with a steady-state frequency deviation, determined by the statics of the generator and the frequency-dependence of the load. The AGC will bring back the frequency of the system to nominal value and re-establish the decided exchange between different areas by adjusting the production of available generators. This means that the AGC by using measures on system frequency and power flow from lines of importance can give signals to available production units to change the production. How this works is shown in Figure 2.1. .
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Secondary control AGC
Power Flow Frequency
Power system Loads Tranmission Production
Energy system
Primary control
Set point control
Turbine regulator
Guide van operating mechanism
Turbine
Generator
Rotational speed
Figure 2.1 Coordination between primary and secondary control today (source:SINTEF)
Increased use of production and load shedding This is not in general a part of the secondary control mechanisms, but it has to be mentioned as one of the possibilities carried out due to e.g. a sudden change in the wind speed. It is mainly two conditions where this is likely to be initiated. If the wind power production is increasing more than forecasted, there have to be carried out production shedding or reduce the ramping/maintain output of the wind power production of a wind power park by changing angle of blades. The other aspect is when the wind power production has a sudden decrease, and to get available hydro power plant up and running, larger consumptions has to be reduced or disconnected until necessary hydro power plant is producing the needed amount of power. However this is only activated if the change in wind generation has more severe consequences (very low value of system frequency). Load shedding should be considered as a last mean of protecting a power system from total blackout.
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The need of regulating reserves in Norway
3.1
Introduction
Integration of wind power will give greater variations of energy production, due to variability of wind. This means that the operators need better prediction tools for wind power production to be able to balance the system. The system operator has to increase the reserves to be prepared to compensate for not predicted power variations. The risk will be reduced by improved accuracy of the forecasting, as well as the unnecessary assignment of too large regulating reserves. This will have an impact on both the balancing cost and the system security.
3.2
Prognosis Uncertainty
The generation plans are determined the day-ahead, 12-36h before the operation hour, after each party have submitted their production plans. [4] Therefore it is important to do the planning as exactly as possible, to decrease the use of needed reserves during the operation hour. However, there are some sources that are related to certain uncertainty. In Norway today the consumption constitutes the largest deviation with respect to the balance. The consumption is the most significant source of uncertainty due to the strong correlation with the temperature. If larger amounts of wind power are introduced to the power system, this will increase the deviation between the prognosis and the operation hour. The wind is a rather unreliable energy source, the wind varies greatly during a year and also within a day, from zero wind up to 25 m/s and above, and the wind has to be used immediately, since it can not be stored. The prognosis uncertainty also depends on the time horizon, when they decide the production plans. A longer time horizon before operation hour increases the deviation and the need of reserves. Therefore, a good forecasting tool has to be developed in order to predict the production as exact as possible to reduce the deviations. There is a lot of research on this field assessing different approaches to improve the existing forecasting tools, and find new approaches on how to do this by involving more detailed parameters and measurements values.
3.3
Forecast error of wind power and load
The prognosis uncertainty in this project is assessed statistically, which is the most suitable, since the operation and planning of the grid is based on risks, i.e. probability of occurrences. A statistical approach will also include almost all possible variations of the systems, making it suitable to determine the reserves.
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Statnett provided data for 2005 until 2008 containing average load per hour and the dayahead load forecast. Figure 3.1 shows the load and the load forecast for the first 3 days of January 2008. Analysis of the provided data set for 2005-2008 has been assessed to determine a standard deviation of the load forecast error in Norway. During the years 2005 to 2008, there are 280 hours where the forecast error is above 1000 MW. The standard deviation of the load forecast error is determined to be 2,4 % for day-ahead prediction. It is important to point out that the forecast error has decreased every year since 2005, which might indicate that the forecasting has improved. If this is due to better tools or just a coincidence, is not clear. To give a definite conclusion on this issue, more data has to be assessed.
25000 20000 15000 MW 10000 5000 0 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 hour Hourly load Day-ahead forecast
Figure 3.1 Actual load vs. load forecast for 3 days in January 2008 (source: STATNETT)
The following values shown in Table 3.1 are used as basis for forecast error with respect to wind power production and load consumption. The wind forecast error and load forecast error are obtained from the DENA-study [5] and Statnetts own data regarding imbalances, respectively.
Table 3.1 Calculated forecast errors for wind generation and consumption
1h Load forecast error Wind generation forecast error 1,4% 2,5%
4h 1,4% 4,7%
D+1 2,4% 7,2%
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3.4
Statistical approach
The quantification of necessary additional reserves can be done by an analytical approach with statistical measures using time series of wind power production, load consumption and error margins. The wind power production is the variable which is most difficult to define, since the forecast error is different depending on which time horizon we are looking at. It has to be stated that this is a probabilistic approach, which will in most cases give a lower reserve requirement than a deterministic approach. Nevertheless, several studies show that a probabilistic approach is the most realistic way of doing these kinds of studies. One way of doing this is by statistical estimation of the effects of variations using standard deviation, which is a measure of the dispersion of a collection of numbers. The system sees the net load (load - wind power production). As long as the load and wind power production is uncorrelated, the net load variation is the root mean square combination of load and wind power variation.
2 2 2 total = load + wind
(1)
total load wind
= = =
standard deviation of the net load standard deviation of the load standard deviation of the wind power production
To determine the additional reserves, we need to include almost all possible variations, and it is decided to use 4 variations, which include 99,99 % of all possible occurring variations. (Figure 3.2) [6,7]
Figure 3.2 Gaussian distribution
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3.5
Results
Based on the statistical approach described in Chapter 3.4, the additional reserves requirement due to prognosis uncertainty can be expressed as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Additional requirements for reserves due to prognosis uncertainty
Scenario Wind power (MW) Wind power penetration in % of gross demand Stdev wind power forecast Stdev load forecast Stdev netload forecast Increase in forecast error, 4
D+1 Case 1 Case 2 3500 15,9 252 528 585,1 228,2 7000 31,8 504 528 729,9 807,7
4h Case 1 3500 15,9 164,5 308 349,2 164,7 Case 2 7000 31,8 329 308 450,7 570,7 Case 1 3500 15,9 87,5 308 320,2 48,8
1h Case 2 7000 31,8 175 308 354,2 185,0
The results given in Table 3.2 determine that the time horizon of planning is a crucial parameter to define the exact amount to allocate for reserves due to prognosis uncertainty. Day-ahead planning with 7000 MW wind power production requires a need of 808 MW additional reserve due to prognosis uncertainty. This amount can be reduced by having good prediction tool and method to determine the wind power production the day-ahead. There is a lot of research within the field prediction tools, and since there probably is some years until Norway would have those amounts of wind power integrating in the system, and there will probably be technology developed improving the forecasting error and reduce the necessary available reserve. Due to the small amounts of installed wind power in Norway today, there is not much available forecast data of wind power production. The standard deviation values used for wind power forecast is based on data from the DENA-study [5]. This data is based on German conditions, and might not be suited for Norwegian condition. However, there could be stated that the calculated values of reserves needed available for prognosis uncertainty in Norway is worst case. This statement is based on the arguments, that the Norwegian government and the TSO would probably prefer a geographical diversity of wind farm locations. This will give a smoothing effect, and will decrease the error margin of wind power production and in accordance with improved accuracy of forecasting will decrease the forecast error margin of wind power production.
3.6
Future trading market
There is no doubt that large amount of wind power in the power system will increase the prognosis uncertainty. The necessary actions needed by Statnett, is to increase the reserve capacity of the regulating power market, cross-section handling and counter trade to be able
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to handle the variations of wind power. This will probably lead to less activity on the Elspotmarket, and increasing differences of Elspot area-prices. Elbas will be introduced in 2009 in the Norwegian market, and should be used by the parties in Norway for power trading that leads to physical delivery, the so called intra-day market. It is based on real time trading around the clock every day during a year. Elbas covers individual hours up to one hour before delivery [8]. Due to a greater need of regulating power, this may lead the parties to use Elbas as their new market instead of Elspot. Elbas will probably not be used that much in Norway until we get large amount of wind power operating in the power system. But this market will probably play an important role when the system is experiencing larger imbalances due to the variability of wind, and the need of regulating until the hour before operation.
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4
4.1
Description of input data

Network data and exchange scenarios
The studies are based on the provided PSSE network model Norge_d07h, which is a distinctive, representative operating condition, annual peak load in Norway. This model contains the main grid of Norway (420kV and 300kV), most of the regional grid (132kV). It also contains some simplifications on the lower network levels to include necessary production and important loads. The network model is mainly based on the work done in [9], and more details can be found in appendix D. Total installed capacity of wind power in the model is 9000 MW. The wind farms are modelled to operate with cos = 0.95. Figure 4.1 is showing the locations and installed capacity of wind farms included in the network model. The data and location of wind power is based on information given by NVE by May 2007. More detailed information about the included wind farms can be found in the appendix of the report Storskala integrasjon av vindkraft Konsekvenser for Sentralnettet [9].
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Figure 4.1 Locations of modeled wind farms and installed capacity [9]
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4.2
Ramping values
It is important to include the effect of wind power to the power system, which means various aspects have to be assessed: Since the wind farm locations have a geographical diversity, the weather pattern and forecast in the different areas have to be model to include the influence and expected wind variation. This is important to determine the possible consequences that can occur in the network based on changing conditions. It is clear that wind power output of a wind farm varies with the wind speed. Every single wind generator at a site will contribute different of each other due to the dependence of location and the wind direction. It is also clear that the behavior of a wind farm will behave different compared to a conventional power plant. Aggregating the wind power farm will not have any high influence on a short term basis, due to the smoothing effect over larger geographical areas. Statnett has provided a data set of wind production data, obtained from a wind farm in Norway. These data contains only 34 days of measurements. The measurements contain oneminute data series of October and November 2008. The provided data set is too small to make final conclusions about tends, but there could be drawn some indications compared to research and studies performed by others. Figure 4.2 shows a comparison of average wind power output and wind speed at the same location on hourly basis. Hourly wind speed data is used since it was the only resolution that was possible to obtain free by MET 2 . Figure 4.2 is based on measurements done for a day with high wind, and shows the typical correlation between high wind and high wind power output.
hourly average power and wind speed 20 15 m/s 10 5 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 Power 19 21 23 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Wind speed
Figure 4.2 Hourly average power and wind speed
The Norwegian Meterological Institute
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MW
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The provided data set contained some characteristic data, which can be assumed to be worst case ramping scenarios due to increase/decrease of nearly 2/3 of installed capacity during one minute. A summary of these findings will follow: October 22th 2008: During hour 4 and 5 this day, arise the highest average increase/ decrease during one minute; +80 MW/-103 MW. This gives an average ramping value per second in the range of 1,3 MW/s to 1,7 MW/s, corresponding to about 1 % of installed capacity. October 25th 2008: During hour 7 this day, the wind farm experiences a downward regulating of 149 MW over 9 minutes, and then after another 8 minutes an upward regulating of 149 MW over 7 minutes. This is shown in Figure 4.3.
Time 7 - 25.okt
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58

Figure 4.3 Wind power production output from one entire wind farm in Norway at October 25th
Based on the high wind power production both before and after this occurrence, the most plausible reason is shut down due to high wind (>25 m/s). The average upward and downward ramping is respectively, 0,35 MW/s and 0,27 MW/s, which correspond to about 0,2 % of the installed capacity. November 10th and 12th: During these days, there is a characteristic upward ramping of wind power. The reason to this upward ramping is not defined, but it could be e.g. start up because of internal failure or maintenance of wind farm or a start-up after an outage due to a disturbance in the power system.
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On November 10th there is an upward ramping of 135 MW over 1h and 17 minutes. This corresponds to an average ramping value of 1,75 MW/min. On November 12th there is an upward ramping of 131 MW over 1h and 1 minute. This corresponds to an average ramping value of 2,1 MW/min. Average values of the data set: The average upward and downward ramping values, defined by the assessment of the provided data set are respectively +1,54 MW/min and -1,52 MW/min. These values correspond well to the data assessed from November 10th and 12th, which gives a certain indication of normal ramping values. No final conclusion can be taken based on this data, since the provided data set is only for one wind farm in Norway. It is recommended to gather more data, which can be assessed in the future, to determine the exact trends. Another important aspects, is the missing one second data series, which might have given worse numbers at least for the maximum values of 1 second change of wind power production. This is an important value to determine to be prepared for certain changes due to balance management, and to be able to include the required reserve to handle conditions due to sudden wind change, e.g. missing wind or too high wind coming on the defined hour of operation. Assessment of provided data set determined that expected worst case ramping would be about 2 MW/s, which correspond to 1 % of installed capacity. Since the measurements containg to few data, no final conclusion can be taken. Therefore, discussion was carried out with Statnett, research and desired to stress the system as much as possible, it was determined to use 5% (per second) of installed capacity as a worst case value of sudden change of wind, both increase and decrease. In case of simulations of sudden wind changes for entire geographical area of wind farms, the same value of wind speed change was used (5 %/s), with a time frame of 5 s. It must be pointed out that these are very unusual occurrences and at ramp rate limits of any known wind generator. Ramp rate in range of 4-7 % of capacity is considered to be extreme ramp rates [10,16].
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5
5.1
Study analyses
Assumptions and considerations
Prerequisites and assumptions which were included in this study are:
No variation of the consumption during a year is considered (only peak load scenario is considered) Bottlenecks are not considered (frequency response study is done for loop P/f (active power vs. frequency) with negligence of transmission system issues) The wind farms are working at actual wind speed at all times and they do not participate in frequency control (this is current practice in wind power technology) The distinctive areas for sudden wind changes are close to locations of defined occurrences (Chapter 5.3) Secondary control mechanisms such as AGC and system operator action is not included in studies and all analyses are done for period of action of primary control (50 s) The expected changes of wind is assumed to be 5% of installed capacity per second (Chapter 4.2)
5.2
Inertial & Governor response load flow (INLF)
In order to investigate the impact of high power generation of wind farms to the power system of Norway and their influence on power system control, it was necessary to build a base case model which will provide a response similar to the actual one (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1 Power system control constants () for Nordel interconnection [3]
Power system control constants Area Country Eastern Denmark Nordel Finland Norway Sweden Country MW/Hz 230 1450 1970 2350 6000 Area MW/Hz
600 MW imbalance in Norway Primary control action Country MW 23 145 197 235 600 403 197 Total MW SE,FI,DK MW Norway MW
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The main goal in tuning the base case model was to obtain a response similar to the actual one which means loss of 600 MW production in Norway should cause frequency drop of 100 mHz (according to the overall power system control constant). Frequency drop is followed by primary control reaction of generator governors in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Eastern Denmark with an aim to restore generation vs. demand balance. Reaction of generators causes additional primary control which flows through transmission grid of Nordel, and in particular case of outage in Norway, it is assumed that 403 MW will inrush from neighboring Sweden and the remaining (197 MW) will be generated by Norwegian generators. Power-frequency characteristic of one power system is adjusted by changing droop constants of the governors of turbine-generators. Droop characteristic of one turbine-generator unit determines its primary control reaction to sudden imbalance of power in power system (which is followed by change of frequency). Consequently, droop settings also affect the reaction of secondary control since secondary control takes over the restoration of power balance and frequency after primary control reaction. It is important to mention that the entire interconnection has to be taken into consideration because all units in synchronous operation, with frequency control governors, participate in primary control. The base case model consist of a full transient stability model of Norway, including two equivalent generators connected to ends of two interconnection lines (OHL 420 kV Nea- Jrpstrmmen and Hasle-Borgvik) over which the synchronous parallel operation is achieved with the rest of Nordel countries. Beside these interconnections, there are also submarine HVDC cables from Norway towards Denmark and Netherlands, but in loop Active Power-Frequency they do not participate at all. Adjustment of the base case model was done by usage of INLF/IGLF tool which is a standard part of PSSE software [12]. Three values were of interest in the process adjusting the base case model:
Frequency deviation Cross Border primary control flow Droop constants for generators in Norway and rest of Nordel (equivalent generators)
The selected reference disturbance was the simultaneous outage of two hydro generators in HPP Kvilldal which yields a loss of 600 MW. This loss should cause a frequency drop of 100 mHz which was taken as a reference frequency deviation. Cross border primary control flow was selected according to power system control constants of the surrounding countries in Nordel-area (around 400 MW of inflow). The range of values for droop constants is highly dependant of the type of power system, nominal rating of unit and its position in power system, but they are in range from 1 % up to 20 %. The calculation IGLF (Inertial-Governor Load Flow) is intended to indicate system conditions that would exist at least several seconds after the initiation of an event during a steady-state system condition. In this time frame, it is assumed that voltage regulator and turbine governor effects are influential in bringing the system to a new steady-state condition and those changes in generator powers are determined by governor droop and damping characteristics. In this solution, generator scheduled voltages are unchanged except as described below, and the default response to the VAR limit selection is to honor generator reactive power limits. By default, tap adjustment by the stepping method and phase shift angle adjustment are enabled, DC taps are unlocked, and switched shunts are active. These
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settings may be overridden by the user when initiating the solution. Area interchange control and the non-divergent solution option are always disabled. Since the primary control has only proportional action, frequency deviation of each generator is calculated according to equation 2:
f =
Pt Pe 1 D+ R
(2)
where: Pt is turbine power (equal to initial electrical power of generator) Pe is active power of generators (after disturbance) R is governor permanent droop D is damping coefficient Frequency deviation should be the same for each generator while changes of power generation are dependant on droop and active power reserve of each generator. Application of IGLF enabled the adjustment of base case model thus that each equivalent generator (equivalents for the rest of Nordel) has permanent droop of 2.3 %, while generators in Norway have droop of 16 % with the assumption that smaller hydro generators do not participate in primary control. Change of power system losses due to the certain outage is present but neglected in this analysis. Primary control import of power (inflow from rest of Nordel) is less than 400 MW since the loss of two units in Kvilldal reduced the overall power system losses, but, the primary control reaction of Norway is set to 200 MW.
Table 5.2 Area/Owner/Zone Report for 0MW wind generation (referred as base case) before reference outage in Norway
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------PTI INTERACTIVE POWER SYSTEM SIMULATOR--PSS/E STORSKALA INTEGRERING AV VINDKRAFT. HOYLAST 22000 MW - 0 MW VINDKRAFT. FROM X-- AREA --X GENERATION 1 NORDEL 2 NORWAY TOTALS 350.3 84.6 22805.4 6891.7 23155.7 6976.3 TO LOAD 1950.0 0.0 20390.4 3683.4 22340.4 3683.4 TO BUS SHUNT 0.0 -100.0 1.0 -1746.6 1.0 -1846.6 TO LINE FROM TO NET INT -1600.3 242.9 1600.3 -242.9 0.0 0.0 LOSSES 0.6 9.8 813.7 11152.4 814.3 11162.2 0.0 1600.0 TUE, DEC 02 2008 2:04 AREA TOTALS IN MW/MVAR DESIRED NET INT -1600.0
SHUNT CHARGING 0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.3 -0.1 0.3 0.0 68.1 0.0 5954.9 0.0 6023.0
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Table 5.3 Area/Owner/Zone Report for 0MW wind generation (referred as base case) after reference outage in Norway
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------PTI INTERACTIVE POWER SYSTEM SIMULATOR--PSS/E STORSKALA INTEGRERING AV VINDKRAFT. HOYLAST 22000 MW - 0 MW VINDKRAFT. FROM X-- AREA --X GENERATION 1 NORDEL 2 NORWAY TOTALS 679.3 -118.2 22415.2 6177.3 23094.5 6059.1 TO LOAD 1950.0 0.0 20390.4 3683.4 22340.4 3683.4 TO BUS SHUNT 0.0 -99.8 1.0 -1753.6 1.0 -1853.4 TO LINE FROM TO NET INT -1271.0 41.4 1271.0 -41.4 0.0 0.0 LOSSES 0.4 8.2 752.8 10294.5 753.2 10302.7 0.0 1600.0 TUE, DEC 02 2008 2:06 AREA TOTALS IN MW/MVAR DESIRED NET INT -1600.0
SHUNT CHARGING 0.0 0.0 -0.1 0.5 -0.1 0.5 0.0 68.0 0.0 6005.1 0.0 6073.1
Although, values of droops do not correspond to the actual values of permanent or transient droops of governors in hydro power plants in Nordel (with Norway), at this level of accuracy (with respect to collected data), these adjustments will provide sufficiently good response of simulation. From Table 5.2 and Table 5.3, it can be seen that the power generation of Norway is changed from 22805.4 Mw to 22415.2 MW (difference of 390.2 MW). This can be interpreted as a decrease of 600 MW (due to reference outage) and then the reaction of primary control of Norway of 209.7 MW which is pretty close to the targeted value of primary control reaction. Expected primary control flows from rest of Nordel are below expected 390 MW (1600 MW 1271 MW = 329 MW) because outage in Norway caused the decrease of power system losses for 61MW. In any case, the IGLF adjustment proved to be an efficient tool for setting up the base case frequency response for further analyses.
5.3
Analyzed scenarios
The study contains three main scenarios:
0 MW wind power production, considered as base case 3500 MW wind power generation 7000 MW wind power generation
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Based on these three scenarios, the following cases will be assessed during the simulations:
Reference case 1: Loss of 600 MW production Reference case 2: Loss of 600 MW load Reference case 3: Loss of 1200 MW production Case 1: Loss of the largest production unit, HPP Kvilldal (1200 MW), and sudden decrease of wind in one distinctive area Case 2: Loss of a large load, ASU (aluminum smelting plant of 600 MW), and sudden increase of wind in one distinctive area Case 3: Sudden stop of large wind farms and sudden decrease of wind in one distinctive area
Equivalent wind power park connected to Fosen (installed capacity of 1270 MW) Equivalent wind power park connected to Orkdal (installed capacity of 1110 MW)
Case 4: Sudden decrease of wind power Case 5: Sudden increase of wind power
These cases will be the basis to decide the requirement of necessary additional reserve. In addition the needed total operating reserves which have to be available due to prognosis uncertainty have been assessed statistically based on wind power production forecast error margin and load forecast error margin. These margins are described detailed in Chapter 3.3 and the results are described in Chapter 3.5.
5.4
Base case scenario
According to the settings implemented during the process of governor load flow calculations (chapter 5.2), frequency response to the reference loss of production (2 units in HPP Kvilldal (2x300 MW)) corresponds to the adjusted value. In the new steady-state, obtained after 50 s, the frequency reaches the targeted value of 49.9 Hz (Figure 5.1), which is a confirmation of IGLF calculation and a proper starting point for all future comparisons. The reference loss of load in ASU (600 MW) is used as an opposite test to the usual generation outage tests in order to check the engagement of lower reserve due to the opposite governor reactions of HPPs in Norway. Figure 5.2 shows that the response is nearly symmetrical to the response to generation outage. For the purpose of comparison with further simulation cases, additional simulation of HPP Kvilldal was performed (1200 MW), while for the rest of cases, it is impossible to do this since there are no wind farms available in Base Case Scenario.
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Figure 5.1 Frequency response to ref.case 1 in base case scenario
Figure 5.2 Frequency response to ref.case 2 in base case scenario
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Figure 5.3 Frequency response to ref. case 3 in base case scenario
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5.5
Scenario of 3500 MW of wind generation
Analyses of frequency responses have revealed differences compared to the same events in the base case. The reference loss of 600 MW production which causes the frequency drop of 100 mHz in the base case scenario, now causes the drop of 105.5 mHz. There is also a difference in shape of the curve, since the presence of wind farms brings some additional inertial response at the first instant of disturbance. The loss of load also brings changes and the difference is even higher in terms of shape of the curve which means that engagement of lower reserve is not so fast as engagement of upper reserve. Frequency is however better restored (stationary rise of 103.5 mHz). Particular cases of disturbances involving wind generation change have brought changes in frequency response and the most obvious changes are noticeable for Cases 3, 4 and 5 since they include large scale imbalances and large scale wind generation deviation.
Case 1 caused a frequency deviation of -228,5 mHz (Figure 5.7). Case 2 caused a frequency rise of 124 mHz with maintaining the period of reaching the steady state (Figure 5.8) Case 3 caused a frequency deviation of -173,5 mHz (Figure 5.9) Case 4 caused a frequency deviation of -150 mHz with notation that recovery of frequency was delayed due to the gradual change of wind power generation in 5 s (Figure 5.10) Case 5 caused a frequency rise of 168.5 mHz with significantly delayed settling on new stationary value. This is a consequence of gradual increase of wind power generation in 5 s (Figure 5.11)
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Figure 5.4 Frequency responses for ref. case 1 in base case scenario (red) and 3500 wind scenario (blue)
Figure 5.5 Frequency responses for ref.case 2 in base case scenario (red) and 3500 wind scenario (blue)
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Figure 5.7 Frequency responses for Case 1 (red) and ref.case 3 (blue) in 3500 wind scenario
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Figure 5.8 Frequency responses for Case 2 (red) and ref.case2 (blue) in 3500 wind scenario
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5.6
Scenario of 7000 MW of wind generation
Frequency responses for this scenario have significant differences compared to the same events in the base case. The reference loss of 600 MW production which causes the frequency drop of 100 mHz in the base case scenario, corresponds to a drop of 117 mHz. There is also a difference in shape of the curve, because small signal stability issues emerge with large penetration of wind generation. Sub-synchronous oscillations which appear during disturbance (Figure 5.12) are a consequence of stiff synchronous operation of wind farms (maintaining of same injection of power independently of system frequency). Loss of load also brings changes and the difference is even higher in terms of shape of the curve which means that engagement of lower reserve is not as fast as the engagement of upper reserve. Frequency is restored several seconds later what can be seen in Figure 5.13 (stationary rise of 107 mHz). Particular cases of disturbances involving wind generation change have brought significant changes in frequency response compared to the previous scenario of 3500 MW of wind power generation. Cases 3, 4 and 5 still bring largest excursions of frequency since they include large scale outages and large scale wind generation deviation.
Case 1 caused a frequency deviation of -253 mHz (Figure 5.15). Case 2 caused a frequency rise of 127 mHz with maintaining the period of reaching the steady state (Figure 5.16) Case 3 caused a frequency deviation of -377 mHz (Figure 5.17). In this scenario wind farms at Fosen and Orkdal were generating 1853 MW before the sudden stop, which makes this event the most critical one. Case 4 caused a frequency deviation of -160 mHz with notation that recovery of frequency was delayed due to the gradual change of wind power generation in 5 s (Figure 5.18) Case 5 caused a frequency rise of 191.5 mHz with significantly delayed settling time. This is a consequence of gradual increase of wind power generation in 5 s (Figure 5.19)
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Findings
All values of frequency drops due to governor responses in Nordel are gathered in Table 6.1 for analyses and comparison. Except for Case 3, all values are comparable for analyzed scenarios. In particular case 3 (loss of large wind farms Fosen and Orkdal with wind decrease at the same time), wind power generation from these farms are different in corresponding scenarios, so the frequency deviation in 7000 MW wind scenario is more than twice as high. On basis of power imbalance and frequency deviation, a value of power system control constant (a.k.a. frequency bias, regulating force), can be calculated by simple equation 3.
P MW f Hz
(3)
Figure 6.1 Comparison of frequency responses for case 1 for base case (red), 3500 wind (blue) and 7000 wind (green) scenarios
Figure 6.1 shows that with increasing new wind power generation the power system of Norway (as a part of Nordel interconnection) becomes inherently weaker in terms of power system stability. From the frequency diagrams in previous chapter, it is clear that Norway in cooperation with the Nordel interconnection still has the ability to cope with large disturbances, but noticeable differences in magnitude and time of response do appear as explained in the previous chapters.
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Values of regulating forces were calculated based on frequency deviations in Table 6.1 and presented on diagram in Figure 6.2.
Table 6.1 Frequency responses in different scenarios for all analyzed cases
Cases Ref.case 1 Ref.case 2 Ref.case 3 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
MW Outage 600 -600 3 1200 1200 -600 903/1853 -
MW wind decrease NA NA NA 104 -104 71 822 -822
Frequency Drops Base case mHz -98,5 100,5 4 -197,5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3500 MW mHz -105,5 103,5 -215 -228,5 124 -173,5 -150 168,5 7000 MW mHz -117 107 -234,5 -253 127 -377 -160 191,5
The initial value for this study, which is nowadays the current value for regulating force, was 6000 MW/Hz. The base case was adjusted to this value, and this value is used as a reference for all comparisons. The new calculated average regulating force of Nordel for scenario of 3500 MW wind power generation is 5650 MW/Hz. This means that Nordel will have less primary control reserve to achieve the new steady-state condition after imbalance occurs. For the scenario of 7000 MW of wind power generation, average value of regulating force is reduced to a even lower value of 5315 MW/Hz. As a consequence, the same loss of power causes deeper frequency drops and longer time for frequency recovery which is overlapping with initiation of secondary control action.
negative value of MW refers to loss of consumption
positive value of frequency refers to frequency rise
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-values of Nordel for different scenarios and cases
6500
6000
[MW/Hz]
5500
5000
base case wind 3500 wind 7000
4500
4000 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 Power Imbalance [MW]

Figure 6.2 Diagram of regulating forces (frequency biases) for different scenarios and corresponding cases
In both of the wind power generation scenarios, there is obviously a necessity to add more power to the primary control reaction in order to reach the base case targeted regulating force of 6000 MW/Hz. There is no exact method to give the exact number or amount of regulating power, since there are many different measures how to set the regulating force to some defined value. The first measure is definitely increasing active power reserve of power plants in Norway and Nordel (expansion of existing or construction of new units). Another plausible measure is to revise and change the droop settings for power plant governors. One of the latest solutions is to implement such control logic to wind farms to actually simulate the droop and conventional frequency control. Since it is obvious from the frequency response diagrams, and Figure 6.2 presents that a certain amount of primary control power is missing, an overall value of additional primary control reserve can be given. This power can be calculated according to equation 4.
Pres = ( BASE wind ) f t arg et

where: BASE is base case regulating force of Nordel
[MW ]
(4)
wind is regulating force of Nordel with wind power penetration ftarget is targeted reference value of frequency drop defined by Nordel regulations (100 mHz)
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Table 6.2 Regulating forces and required additional reserves for analyzed scenarios
Scenario Base case Scenario 3500 MW Scenario 7000 MW
Regulating force MW/Hz 6000 5650 5315
Required additional reserve MW 0 35 70
Since both values of reserve Table 6.2 correspond to approximately 1% of the actual wind power generation in particular scenario, the value of primary control reserve for 7000 MW wind scenario is rounded from 68.5 MW to 70 MW. Actual means of increasing the regulating force can be a subject of a new study.
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7
7.1
Conclusion
Main conclusions
Integration of wind power will give greater variations of energy production, due to variability of wind. This means that the transmission system operators need knowledge about how increasing wind power production affects the balance management of the power system. The system operator might need to increase the reserves to be prepared to compensate for not predicted power balance variations. Load variations are easier to predict, so the variability of wind may increase the need for additional reserve. Simulations are performed to determine additional requirement of frequency-controlled normal operation reserve, the calculations show that the need of additional reserves in Norway would be:
The frequency-controlled normal operation reserve would require an increase of 35 MW with 3500 MW wind power production. The frequency-controlled normal operation reserve would require an increase of 70 MW with 7000 MW wind power production.
The frequency-controlled disturbance reserve is considered not to be changed. The existing definition is that this reserve is based on loss of the dimensioning fault. This is currently the system protection scheme in southern Norway, which could be maximum 1200 MW. Since none of the planned wind farms will be larger than dimensioning fault, there is no need of changing this reserve. The calculated reserves for frequency-controlled normal operation reserve is rather small, but in range of what is expected. Increasing wind power penetration in the power system has relatively small impact in the time scale one second to a few minutes. When wind farms have a geographical diversity over a larger area, there will be obtained a smoothing effect for very short variations of wind power generation; since these variations are uncorrelated they will cancel each other. On the other hand, there is ongoing development which in the future might give larger wind turbines, and lead to fewer and more concentrated wind farms. This will eliminate the smoothing effect, and give challenges for the balance management. For the time frame 15 minute to 1 hour, it is important from a system point of view, to allocate necessary reserves in case of imbalances according to forecast. In Norway and the Nordel-area, the planning and forecast is performed 12-36 hours ahead of operation hour. This is due to the market requirement, and the trading of power is today performed at Elspot. The required additional reserve for prognosis uncertainty is assessed statistically by a probabilistic method including 99,99 % of the variations of the forecast errors of net load. The statistical approach has given these required additional reserves due to prognosis uncertainty based on day-ahead planning:
The prognosis uncertainty would require an increase of the reserve to 228 MW with 3500 MW wind power production by day-ahead planning. The prognosis uncertainty would require an increase of the reserve to 808 MW with 7000 MW wind power production by day-ahead planning.
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The forecast error margin obtained from the DENA-study is considered to be the worst case values. Based on the ongoing research and development in prediction methodology and prediction tools, this will improve the accuracy of forecasting and decrease the error margin. The time horizon of planning the operation hour is also a sensitive parameter. The parties in Norway can trade on the Elspot market until 12 hours before operation hour. It may be necessary to change this practice when larger amount of wind power is introduced in the power system, since shorter time horizon of planning will decrease the need to allocate so large reserves as indicated in this study. Large amount of wind power in the power system can have an impact on the system also during low load conditions. Especially during summertime with low load and during night with sudden wind increase, it is important to have local capacity. In these conditions there could be shortage of downward regulating reserves at the regulating market, e.g. due to maintenance of production units or full production for export. During the spring, it is also often flood and low load. Under these conditions, the hydro power plants are utilized to maximum. A sudden unexpected change of wind speed could now generate a problem. The latter alternative will mainly be of economical character, since the owner of hydro power stations have no or small interest reducing its power generation. Increasing wind power generation and due to the variability of wind, there might be need for mechanisms to follow the quick changes better then todays solution with regulation force and regulations in the regulating power market, and AGC could be an alternative. AGC can control both frequency and power beyond normal speed controlled by primary control (statics). The main purpose is to regulate the power output of electric generators within prescribed area in response to changes in system frequency, tie-line loading, or the relation of these to each other, to maintain the scheduled system frequency and/or the established interchange within predetermined limits. Due to a larger need of regulating power, this may lead the parties to use Elbas as their new market instead of Elspot. Elbas will probably not be used that much in Norway until large amount of wind power is installed in the power system, and experiencing larger imbalances due to the variability of wind, and the need of regulating power until the hour before operation. Elbas will be introduced in 2009 in the Norwegian market.
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7.2
Proposal of future work
In light of achieved results in this study and thorough examination of initial obtained data from Statnett, several proposals are imposing, regarding improvement of existing model and further work on elaborated theme. Improvement of existing Statnett model should include:
Modeling of wind farms with newer version of dynamic models Include wind farms for the Nordic PSSE-model Data quality checking of PSSE network model in order to make it more correct
Voltage band for transformer with tap-position Inclusion of up-to-date wind turbine models to replace obsolete/old GE model Check electrical data for components on lower voltage levels Go through all 3-windings transformers modeled as 3 x 2-winding
Future analysis on such built model could include
Revision of existing studies and more in-depth studies as described below. More comprehensive forecast error margin study for both wind power production and load consumption Transmission Reliability Margin Study Implementation of automatic secondary control in power system and assessment of impacts on power system Affects of increasing regulating force Comprehensive analysis of low load conditions
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Literature
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] SSB, Energiregnskap, www.ssb.no/energiregn NVE, Installed and planned wind power in Norway http://www.nve.no/modules/module_111/netbasNVE.asp?script=8 Nordel, System Operation Agreement, 2006 Nordel, Description of Balance Regulation in the Nordic Countries, 2008 Deutsche Energi-Agentur GmbH, Energiwirtschaftliche Planung fr die Netzintegration von Windenergi in Deutschland an Land und Offshore bis zum Jahr 2020, 2005 Hannele Holtinen The impact of large scale wind power production on the Nordic electricity system, Doctor Thesis, VTT 2004 R.Hudson, B.Kirby, Y.H.Wan: Regulation requirements for wind generation facilities, 2003 Elbas homepage, http://www.elbas.net/ Norconsult, Storskala integrasjon av vindkraft Konsekvenser for sentralnettet B.K.Parsons, Y.Wan, B.Kirby, Wind farm power fluctuations, ancillary services, and system operating analysis activities in the United States, 2001 Siemens PTI, PSSE Wind Modeling User guide Siemens PTI, PSSE manuals Thomas Ackermann (ed), Wind power in power systems J.F.Manwell, J.G.McGowan, A.L.Rogers, Wind Energy Explained - Theory, Design and Application Nordel, Improved balanced and frequency control of the Nordic power system, 2008 Yih-Huei Wan, Wind power plant behaviors: Analyses of long-term wind power data, 2004 Statnett, Load and load forecast data for the period 2005-2008. Statnett, Wind power production data Nordels homepage, www.nordel.org
[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]
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Appendix
Appendix A Description of primary and secondary control
Primary operating control This is the most critical reserve for the system security, as this reacts during the first seconds after an occurrence (e.g. change in load consumption, loss of generation etc.) to stop the fall in frequency. Inertial response the inherent response of synchronized generators to do changes in the system frequency Fast response the automated action to increase generation from scheduled plant Secondary operating control The role of secondary response is to return system frequency to 50Hz after the initial occurrence. This response is normally provided by part-loaded generating plants, which can produce full load within few minutes after a low frequency event, or reduced in a high frequency event.
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Appendix B
Nordel harmonised balance management
In the beginning of January 2009, Nordel has agreed to introduce common principles for the balance management. The harmonisation applies to:
Principles for cost allocation Calculation and pricing of balance power and common fee structure Introduction of intra-day trading in the Nordic exchange area
Defined cost elements will be included in the cost basis for balance management in all countries and financed by the balance responsible parties (BRPs). There will be two balances, one for generation, which will be settled in accordance to the two-price system, and one for consumption and trade, which will be settled in accordance with the one-price system. The balances will be calculated per price area and be settled with the area balance power prices. This will lead to a need that all market players have the same possibility to plan their balance and to adjust it when necessary. Therefore Elbas will be introduced in Norway in 2009. A harmonised gate closure time of 45 minutes for regulating bids and production will also be introduced in all countries. [4]
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Appendix C
Dynamic data
Statnett has provided the following prepared dynamic files (dyre-files) which have been used in PSSE:
3500MWvind.dyr Norge_d07h_a-modifisert-for-vindkr-prosj.dyr Karsto.dyr SVC_tunnsj_vikl.dyr
There was not provided a dynamic file suitable for the 7000 MW-scenario, so this file has been prepared based on the same term as the dyre-file 3500MWvind.dyr. PSSEWind has been used to prepare the files and do the setup. This is a graphical user interface, provided by Siemens PTI. The modelling of the wind parks in the provided dynamic data set is based on the 3.6 MW doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) by GE, where all wind parks have been attached the same dynamic models described in the following: GAERA Aerodynamic model which calculates the aerodynamic torque applied to the rotor taking in account wind speed, tip speed ratio Lambda, performance coefficient Cp etc. Active rotor control model (representation of rotor side converter control) Doubly-fed induction generator model including provision for processing commands from rotor control. Pitch angel control model Wind model allowing for wind gusts and ramps to be applied 2-mass shaft model to represent the effects of the rotor/hub connected via a flexible shaft to the generator.
GECNA GEDFA GEPCHA WGUSTA W2MSFA
Complete documentation of the models can be found in PSSE Wind Modeling User guide [11]. However, after intensive correspondence with PTI staff in USA, it was determined that used wind generator models which were implemented in Statnett-model can be considered as obsolete and not suitable for frequency response analyses. Although, it is known in practice what kind of effect the wind power generation has to power system stability; therefore, it was determined during the process of simulations and when obtaining preliminary results that used GE wind models act quite opposite of expected (they reacted as conventional generation units). In that respect and with the aim of obtaining more accurate results, simplification was made by eliminating these wind generator models and using non-controlled generators. Increase and decrease of wind power generation were done by usage of user defined linearly scaled loads which were added to wind farm bus bars to include this effect in our simulations.
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Appendix D
Load:
Description of network model
Basically the total load demand is about 22000 MW, where about 4100 MW refers to energyconsuming industry. Production of hydro power: Hydro power has been adjusted downward in each case to obtain a balanced system of load demand and production in those cases where the wind power is included. It is mainly the largest production units which are set out of service. Interconnections and equivalents: The connections against Denmark and Netherland are modelled as loads at the 300 kV busbar in Feda and Kristiansand. The connections to Sweden is modelled by the two 420 kV lines going from NeaJrpstrmmen and Hasle-Borgvik. Two overhead lines between Hasle and Borgvik are modelled, to include the effect of the two 420kV overhead lines Hasle-Borgvik and HaldenSkogster. In addition, an equivalent line between Borgvik and Jrpstrmmen is modelled with the corresponding impedance of the Swedish network. Generator equivalents are added on the bus bars Borgvik and Jrpstrmmen to include the response of regulating force from the Nordel system in case of a frequency deviation in Norway. The equivalents are including the regulating force from Finland, Sweden and Eastern Denmark. Wind power: The data and location of wind power is based on information given by NVE by May 2007. More detailed information about the included wind farms can be found in the appendix of the report Storskala integrasjon av vindkraft Konsekvenser for Sentralnettet [9]. The different wind power projects are divided in geographical areas and added up and connected to the nearest substation in the main grid. All wind farms connections are modelled by 2 transformers, one from the main grid to 22 kV, and one transformer from 22 kV to 3,3 kV. Total installed capacity of wind power in the model is 9000 MW. The wind farms are modelled to operate with cos = 0.95. Figure 4.1 is showing the locations and installed capacity of wind farms included in the network model. Future reinforcements: The provided network model includes some of the on-going, intended and planned reinforcements in the main grid; in addition the 420 kV OHL Sima-Samnanger and the 420/300kV transformer in Samnanger have been added. In the following, the included reinforcements are listed:
420 kV substation Rjukan 420 kV OHL Klbu-Nea-Jrpstrmmen 420 kV OHL Holen-Kristiansand
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420 kV OHL rskog-Fardal 420 kV OHL Rana-Tunnsjdal-Roan-Viklandet 420 kV OHL Sima-Samnanger
In addition, there have been modelled a 420 kV OHL between Klbu in mid-Norway and Frogner in South-East of Norway, to be able to transfer the intended wind power production out of Mid-Norway in those conditions with high wind. If all intended wind power-projects in Mid-Norway will be carried out, there have to be build some reinforcement in this area. The alternatives are either to strengthen the existing 300 kV OHL from Aura to vre-Vinstra and further to Fberg and Oslo, or building a new OHL between either Klbu- or Viklandet- to the Oslo-area. The same import and export scenario is modelled for all 3 scenarios. Import: The import from Denmark to Kristiansand and Netherland to Feda, is 1000 MW and 600 MW, respectively. Export: The export to Sweden is about 1600 MW through the new 420 kV connections from Nea to Jrpstrmmen and Hasle to Borgvik.
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Appendix E
Wind turbine generator technologies
The main wind turbine-generator technology available today consists of:
Directly connected induction machine The stall-regulated (fixed-speed) blades connected to a hub, which is coupled via a gearbox to a conventional squirrel-cage induction generator. The generator is directly connected to the grid, and may have automatically switched shunt capacitors for reactive power compensation and possibly a soft-start mechanism which is bypassed after the machine has been energized. The speed range of the turbine is fixed by the torque vs. speed characteristics of the induction generator. This is the simplest electrical type of machine, and was introduced and widely used in the 1980s.
Wound rotor induction machine with the external rotor resistance control A wound rotor induction generator with a mechanism for controlling the magnitude of the rotor current through adjustable external rotor circuit resistors, and pitch regulation of the turbine blades to assist in controlling the speed. The speed range of the turbine is widened because of the external resistors.
Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) A wound rotor induction generator with a rotor circuit coupled to the grid terminals through a back-to-back voltage source converter. The converter provides vector (magnitude and phase angle) control of the rotor circuit current, even under dynamic conditions, and substantially widens the operating speed range of the turbine. Turbine speed is primarily controlled by actively adjusting the pitch of the turbine blades.
A machine decoupled from the grid by a full rated power converter These types are offered with a drive-train (geared). Various types of generator are used as synchronous generators with wound rotors, permanent magnet generators and squirrel cage induction generators. The stator of wind turbines is connected to the grid by a full size power converter. The rotor has excitation windings or permanent magnets. Since it is decoupled from the grid, means it can provide a wider range of operating speed than the DFIG, and it has also a broader range of reactive power and voltage control capabilities.
The following power control concepts for wind turbines are available today:
Stall control is the simplest and cheapest control method. The blades are bolted on the hub with a fixed angle. The aerodynamic power on the blades is limited since wind exceeding a certain limit causes the rotor to stall. This type of control leads to less power fluctuations, but also less efficiency with low wind. With pitch control the blades can be turned out or into the wind if the power output is too low or too high. This concept gives good power control, and help during start-up or shutdown, since the power can go from maximum to zero within a few seconds. The pitch mechanism is complex and high wind speed gives power fluctuations.
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By active stall control the stalling of the blades are controlled by pitching the blades. The blades are acting similar as pitch-controlled wind turbines during low wind to obtain maximum efficiency.
Since this study will deal with system frequency response, it is important to give some main characteristics what influence certain types of wind generator technology has to power system frequency. Fixed Speed wind turbine generators which usually consist of squirrel cage induction generator:
Provide significant inertial response Slower response than synchronous generator
Variable Speed wind turbine generators which utilize power electronics converters are significantly different because:
Synchronous wind turbine generators have no inertial response (because of frequency decoupling) Doubly Fed Induction Generators have negligible inertial response (because rotor circuit is frequency decoupled).
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Wind Balance Report Siemens 161208

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Siemens PTI Network Consulting

Statnett SF Balance Management

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Statnett SF Balance Management

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Statnett SF Balance Management

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Statnett SF Balance Management

5.6 6 7 7.1 7.2

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Estimation of additional reserve requirements for Norway.

Forecast accuracy evaluation Consideration regarding secondary control-aspects

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Statnett SF Balance Management

General description of work

The Norwegian power system

Main Grid Regional Grid Distribution Grid

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Figure 1.1 Map of Nordel-system [20]

Growth of wind power

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Available reserve categories

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Figure 1.2 Balancing mechanisms in the Nordel system [4]

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Consequences of wind power generation to the main grid

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FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Power system control principles and requirements

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Statnett SF Balance Management

Secondary control AGC

Power Flow Frequency

Power system Loads Tranmission Production

Set point control

Guide van operating mechanism

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Statnett SF Balance Management

The need of regulating reserves in Norway

Forecast error of wind power and load

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