Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(r)u(t r)dr
Y(s) = G(s)U(s)
Local stability = global stability:
Eigenvalues of A (= poles of G(s)) in left half plane
Superposition:
Enough to know step (or impulse) response
Frequency analysis possible:
Sinusoidal inputs give sinusoidal outputs
Linear models are not always enough
Example: Ball and beam
x
m
msin()
0
~ 0.04
0
0
~
0.1
0.04
= 2.5 radians
Clearly outside linear region!
Contact problem, friction, centripetal force, saturation
How fast can it be done? (Optimal control)
2 minute exercise: Find a simple system x = f (x, u) that is
stable for a small input step but unstable for large input steps.
Stability Can Depend on Amplitude
?
1
s
1
(s1)
2
Motor Valve Process
1
r y
Valve characteristic f (x) =???
Step changes of amplitude, r = 0.2, r = 1.68, and r = 1.72
3
Step Responses
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.2
0.4
Time t
O
u
t
p
u
t
y
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
2
4
Time t
O
u
t
p
u
t
y
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
5
10
Time t
O
u
t
p
u
t
y
r = 0.2
r = 1.68
r = 1.72
Stability depends on amplitude!
Stable Periodic Solutions
Example: Motor with back-lash
y
Sum
5
Pcontroller
1
5s +s
2
Motor
0
Constant
Backlash
1
Motor: G(s) =
1
s(15s)
Controller: K = 5
Stable Periodic Solutions
Output for different initial conditions:
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.5
0
0.5
Time t
O
u
tp
u
t y
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.5
0
0.5
Time t
O
u
tp
u
t y
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.5
0
0.5
Time t
O
u
tp
u
t y
Frequency and amplitude independent of initial conditions!
Several systems use the existence of such a phenomenon
Relay Feedback Example
Period and amplitude of limit cycle are used for autotuning
Process
PID
Relay
A
T
u y
1
0 5 1
0
1
Time
u
y
[ patent: T Hgglund and K J strm]
Jump Resonances
y
Sum
Sine Wave
Saturation
20
5s +s
2
Motor
1
Response for sinusoidal depends on initial condition
Problem when doing frequency response measurement
Jump Resonances
u = 0.5 sin(1.3t), saturation level =1.0
Two different initial conditions
0 10 20 30 40 50
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
Time t
O
u
t
p
u
t
y
give two different amplications for same sinusoid!
Jump Resonances
Measured frequency response (many-valued)
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
M
a
g
n
it
u
d
e
Frequency [rad/s]
lin
e
a
r
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d
4
New Frequencies
Example: Sinusoidal input, saturation level 1
asin t y
Saturation
10
0
10
2
10
0
Frequency (Hz)
A
m
p
lit
u
d
e
y
0 1 2 3 4 5
2
1
0
1
2
Time t
10
0
10
2
10
0
Frequency (Hz)
A
m
p
lit
u
d
e
y
0 1 2 3 4 5
2
1
0
1
2
Time t
a = 1
a = 2 a = 2 a = 2 a = 2
New Frequencies
Example: Electrical power distribution
THD = Total Harmonic Distortion =
k=2
energy in tone k
energy in tone 1
Nonlinear loads: Rectiers, switched electronics, transformers
Important, increasing problem
Guarantee electrical quality
Standards, such as THD < 5%
New Frequencies
Example: Mobile telephone
Effective ampliers work in nonlinear region
Introduces spectrum leakage
Channels close to each other
Trade-off between effectivity and linearity
Subresonances
Example: Dufngs equation y y y y
3
= asin(t)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.5
0
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time t
Time t
y
a
s
i
n
t
When is Nonlinear Theory Needed?
Hard to know when - Try simple things rst!
Regulator problem versus servo problem
Change of working conditions (production on demand,
short batches, many startups)
Mode switches
Nonlinear components
How to detect? Make step responses, Bode plots
Step up/step down
Vary amplitude
Sweep frequency up/frequency down
Some Nonlinearities
Static dynamic
Sign
Saturation
Relay
e
u
Math
Function
LookUp
Table
Dead Zone
Coulomb &
Viscous Friction
Backlash
|u|
Abs
2 minute exercise
Construct a model for a rate limiter using some of the previous
nonlinear blocks.
Nonlinear Differential Equations
Problems
No analytic solutions
Existence?
Uniqueness?
etc
5
Existence Problems
Example: The differential equation
dx
dt
= x
2
, x(0) = x
0
has solution
x(t) =
x
0
1 x
0
t
, 0 t <
1
x
0
Finite escape time
t
f
=
1
x
0
Finite Escape Time
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Time t
x
(
t
)
Finite escape time of dx/dt = x
2
Uniqueness Problems
Example: The equation x =
(t C)
2
]4 t C
0 t C
0 1 2 3 4 5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Time t
x
(
t)
Compare with water tank:
dh]dt = a
R
= |z; [z a[ R
If f is Lipschitz-continuous:
[ f (z) f (y)[ K[z y[, for all z, y
then x(t) = f (x(t)), x(0) = a has a unique solution in
0 t < R]C
R
,
where C
R
= max
R
[ f (x)[
State-Space Models
State vector x
Input vector u
Output vector y
general: f (x, u, y, x, u, y, . . .) = 0
explicit: x = f (x, u), y = h(x)
afne in u: x = f (x) (x)u, y = h(x)
linear time-invariant: x = Ax Bu, y = Cx
Transformation to Autonomous System
Nonautonomous:
x = f (x, t)
Always possible to transform to autonomous system
Introduce x
n1
= time
x = f (x, x
n1
)
x
n1
= 1
Transformation to First-Order System
Assume
d
k
y
dt
k
highest derivative of y
Introduce x =
y
dy
dt
. . .
d
k1
y
dt
k1
T
Example: Pendulum
MR
2
MRsin = 0
x =
T
gives
x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
k
MR
2
x
2
R
sin x
1
A Standard Form for Analysis
Transform to the following form
G(s)
Nonlinearities
6
Example, Closed Loop with Friction
_
_
G C
Friction
v
ref u
F
v
==
G
1CG
Friction
Equilibria (=singular points)
Put all derivatives to zero!
General: f (x
0
, u
0
, y
0
, 0, 0, 0, . . .) = 0
Explicit: f (x
0
, u
0
) = 0
Linear: Ax
0
Bu
0
= 0 (has analytical solution(s)!)
Multiple Equilibria
Example: Pendulum
MR
2
MRsin = 0
Equilibria given by
=
= 0 ==sin = 0 == = n
Alternatively,
x
1
= x
2
x
2
=
k
MR
2
x
2
R
sin x
1
gives x
2
= 0, sin(x
1
) = 0, etc
Next Lecture
Linearization
Stability denitions
Simulation in Matlab