12

VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

OVERVIEW To apply calculus in many real-world situations and in higher mathematics, we need a mathematical description of three-dimensional space. In this chapter we introduce three-dimensional coordinate systems and vectors. Building on what we already know about coordinates in the xy-plane, we establish coordinates in space by adding a third axis that measures distance above and below the xy-plane. Vectors are used to study the analytic geometry of space, where they give simple ways to describe lines, planes, surfaces, and curves in space. We use these geometric ideas later in the book to study motion in space and the calculus of functions of several variables, with their many important applications in science, engineering, economics, and higher mathematics.

12.1

Three-DimensionaL Coordinate Systems

To locate a point in space, we use three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes, arranged as in Figure 12.1. The axes shown there make a right-handed coordinate frame. When you hold your right hand so that the fingers curl from the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis, your thumb points along the positive z-axis. So when you look down on the xy-plane from the positive direction of the z-axis, positive angles in the plane are measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis and around the positive z-axis. (In a left-handed coordinate frame, the z-axis would point downward in Figure 12.1 and angles in the plane would be positive when measured clockwise from the positive x-axis. Right-handed and left-handed coordinate frames are not equivalent.) The Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) of a point P in space are the values at which the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes. Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular coordinates because the axes that define them meet at right angles. Points on the x-axis have y- and z-coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have coordinates of the form (x, 0,0). Similarly, points on the y-axis have coordinates of the form (O,y, 0), and points on the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0, 0, z). The planes determined by the coordinates axes are the xy-plane, whose standard equation is z = 0; the yz-plane, whose standard equation is x = 0; and the xz-plane, whose standard equation is y = O. They meet at the origin (0, 0, 0) (Figure 12.2). The origin is also identified by simply 0 or sometimes the letter O. The three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 divide space into eight cells called octants. The octant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called the first octant; there is no convention for numbering the other seven octants. The points in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis all have the same x-coordinate, this being the number at which that plane cuts the x-axis. The y- and z-coordinates can be any numbers. Similarly, the points in a plane perpendicular to the y-axis have a common y-coordinate and the points in a plane perpendicular to the z-axis have a common z-coordinate. To write equations for these planes, we name the common coordinate's value. The plane x = 2 is the plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = 2. The plane y = 3 is the plane perpendicular to the y-axis

z = constant

(O,y,z)

(x, 0, z)

0 ___ 1

P(x,y,z)

- - - __ (O, y,O)

------'y

y = constant
x x = constant
(x, y, 0)

FIGURE 12.1 The Cartesian coordinate system is right-handed.

660

12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

661

z
xz-plane: y = 0

xy-plane: z = 0 - - - -- ____

/
/ /

//

___ yz-plane: x

:\
: (0, 0, 0)
I

Z y
Line x = 2, y = 3

(0,3,0)

FIGURE 12.2 The planes x = O, y = O,andz = space into eight octants.

divide

FIGURE 12.3 The planes x = 2, y = 3, and z = 5 determine three lines through the point (2,3,5).

at y = 3. The plane z = 5 is the plane perpendicular to the z-axis at z = 5. Figure 12.3 shows the planes x = 2, y = 3, and z = 5, together with their intersection point (2, 3, 5). The planes x = 2 and y = 3 in Figure 12.3 intersect in a line parallel to the z-axis. This line is described by the pair of equations x = 2, y = 3. A point (x, y, z) lies on the line if and only if x = 2 and y = 3. Similarly, the line of intersection of the planes y = 3 and z = 5 is described by the equation pair y = 3, z = 5 . This line runs parallel to the x-axis. The line of intersection of the planes x = 2 and z = 5, parallel to the y-axis, is described by the equation pair x = 2, z = 5 . In the following examples, we match coordinate equations and inequalities with the sets of points they define in space.

EXAMPLE 1
(a) z

We interpret these equations and inequalities geometrically. The half-space consisting of the points on and above the xy-plane.

(b) x = -3

(c) z = 0, x

0, y 0, z

The plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = - 3 . This plane lies parallel to the yz-plane and 3 units behind it. The second quadrant of the xy-plane. The first octant. The slab between the planes y = -1 and y = 1 (planes included). The line in which the planes y = - 2 and z = 2 intersect. Alternatively, the line through the point (0, -2, 2) parallel to the x-axis. _

z
x 2 + y2
The circle
= 4,

z= 3

(d) x O,y (e) -1 y

(f) y = - 2, z = 2

EXAMPLE 2

What points P(x, y, z) satisfy the equations and z = 3?

FIGURE 12.4 The circle x 2

the plane z
=

+ y2

4 in

3 (Example 2).

Solution The points lie in the horizontal plane z = 3 and, in this plane, make up the circle x 2 + y2 = 4 .We call this set of points "the circle x 2 + y2 = 4 in the plane z = 3" or, _ more simply, "the circlex 2 + y2 = 4, z = 3" (Figure 12.4).

12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

663

quadratic as a squared linear expression. Then, from the equation in standard form, read off the center and radius. For the sphere here, we have

(X2

+ 3x +

G Y)

x 2 + y2 + Z2 + 3x - 4z + I = 0 (X 2 + 3x) + y2 + (Z2 - 4z) = -I

+ y2 + (Z2 - 4z +

(-;4 y) -I +
=

3)2 9 21 (x+ 2 +y2+(z-2)2=-1+ 4 +4=4'

(-;4Y

From this standard form, we read that Xo = -3/2, Yo = 0, Zo = 2, and a = v21/2. The centeris (-3/2,0,2). The radius isv21/2. EXAMPLE 5 Here are some geometric interpretations of inequalities and equations involving spheres. (a) x 2 + y2 + z2 < 4 The interior of the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4. (h) x 2 + y2 + z2 :5 4 The solid ball bounded by the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4. Alternatively, the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4 together with its interior. 2 + y2 + z2 > 4 (e) x The exterior of the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4. 2 + y2 + z2 = 4, z :5 0 (d) x The lower hemisphere cut from the sphere x 2 +

y2

+ z2

= 4 by the xy-plane (the plane

z = 0) .

Just as polar coordinates give another way to locate points in the xy-plane (Section 11.3), alternative coordinate systems, different from the Cartesian coordinate system developed here, exist for three-dimensional space. We examine two of these coordinate systems in Section 15.7.

Exercises 12.1
Geometric Interpretations of Equations
In Exercises 1-16, give a geometric description of the set of points in

Geometric Interpretations of Inequalities and Equations

In Exercises 17-24, describe the sets of points in space whose coordinates satisfY the given inequalities or combinatioos of equatioos aod inequalities.

space whose coordinates satisfY the given pairs of equations. 1. x = 2, Y = 3 2. x = -1, z = 0 3. y

S.

= 0, 2 x + y2
2

z = 0
=

4. x = I, Y = 0
z = 0

17. a. x -2 0

0, y

0,

= 0

b. x

0, y

0,

= 0

4,

6. xl

7.

+z 2 =4, y=O 9. x 2 + y2 + z2 = I, x = 0
X

+ y2 = 4, z = 8. y2 + z2 = I, x =

18.. 0 '" x '" 1 c. 0 x 1, 0

19.
a.

y
= 0

1,

b. 0 '" x '" I, 0 z 1 b.
Xl

0 '" Y s 1
1

x2

+ y2 + z2
+ y2 :s 1,

:s 1
Z

+ y2 + z2 >
+ y2 :s
1,
Z

10. x 2

11.
12. 13. 14. 15.

16.

+ y2 + z2 = 25, Y = -4 x 2 + y2 + (z + 3)' = 25, z = 0 x 2 + (y - 1)2 + z2 = 4, Y = 0 x 2 + y2 = 4, z = Y x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4, Y = x Y = x 2, z = 0 z = y2, X = 1

20. a. x 2
C. x 2

b. x 2

=3

+ y2:5

1,

norestrictiononz I, z 0
b. x
=
S

21. a. 1 :sx 2 +y2+z2 :S4

b. x 2

+ y2 + z2 :s
z = 0
Z

22. a. x = y,

y,

no restriction on z

23. a. y
b. z =

x 2,
y3,

b. x

y2,

S Z

s 2

24. a. z = 1 - y,
X

no restriction onx

=2

662
Z

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Distance and Spheres in Space

The formula for the distance between two points in the xy-plane extends to points in space.

The Distance Between P1(XhYh Zl) and P 2(X2,Y2, Z2) is

IPI P21 = V(X2 - XI)2

(Y2 - YI)2

(Z2 - ZI)2

FIGURE 12.5 We find the distance between PI and P 2 by applying the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangles PIAB and PIBP2.

Proof We construct a rectangular box with faces parallel to the coordinate planes and the points PI and P2 at opposite comers of the box (Figure 12.5). If A(X2, YI, zd and B(X2, Y2, Zl) are the vertices of the box indicated in the figure, then the three box edges P I A, AB, and BP2 have lengths

Because triangles PIBP2 and PIAB are both right-angled, two applications of the Pythagorean theorem give
IPIP212 = IPIBI 2 + IBP21 2

and

(see Figure 12.5). So

IPIP212 = IPIBI 2 + IBP21 2
IPIA 12
Substitute IP]BI 2 = IP]AI 2 + IABI2 .

IABI2

IBP212

IX2 - xl1 2 + IY2 - YI1 2 + IZ2 - zI1 2

=

(X2 - XI)2

(Y2 - Ylf

(Z2 - zlf

Therefore

EXAMPLE 3 The distance between P I (2, 1,5) and P2( -2,3,0) is

IPIP21 = V(-2 - 2f
= =
Z

+
25

(3 - 1)2

(0 - 5)2

V16

+4+
I"::j

V45

6.708.

Po(Xo, Yo, zo)

P(x,Y,z)

al

We can use the distance formula to write equations for spheres in space (Figure 12.6). A point P(x, y, z) lies on the sphere of radius a centered at Po(xo,Yo, zo) precisely when IPoPI = a or

-- I f"

,,/ 1--

The Standard Equation for the Sphere of Radius a and Center (xo,Yo, zo)
(x - xof
Y x

+ (y -

YO)2

(z - zO)2

= a2

EXAMPLE 4

Find the center and radius of the sphere x2

FIGURE 12.6 The sphere of radius a centered at the point (xo,Yo, zo).

+ y2 + z2 +

3x - 4z

+ 1 = O.

SoLution We find the center and radius of a sphere the way we find the center and radius of a circle: Complete the squares on the X-, Y-, and z-terms as necessary and write each

664

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

44. P I (3, 4, 5), 45. PI(O, 0, 0), b. y-axis at (0, -I, 0) Sphel'l!s Find the centers and radii of the spheres in Exercises 47-50. P 2(2, 3, 4) P2(2, -2, -2)

In Exercises 25-34, describe the given set with a single equatioo or

with a pair of equations.

25. The plaoe perpendicular to the
L

46. P I (5, 3, -2), P2(0, 0, 0)

x-axis at (3, 0, 0)

c. z-axis at (0, 0, -2)

26. The plaoe througb the point (3, -1,2) perpendicular to the
LX-axis
xy-plane
b. y-axis

c. z-axis

27. The plaoe througb the point (3, -I, I) parallel to the
L

b. yz-plane b. yz-plane b. yz-plane

c. xz-plane c. xz-plane

28. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 0) and lying in the

L

xy-plane xy-plane

29. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 2, 0) and lying in the

L

+2)' + +(z - 2)' = 8 48. I)' +& tY + + + (z 3)' 25 49. (x - Vz)' + - Vz)2 + + {y (z Vz)' 50. x+ &+tY + (z-tY
47. (x
y2

(x -

c. planey = 2
Find equations for the spheres whose centers aud radii are given in Exercises 51-54.

30. The circle of radius I centered at (-3,4, I) and lying in a plane

parallel to the
L

xy-plane

b. yz-plane b. y-axis

c. xz-plaoe
c. z-axis

Center
51. (1,2,3) 52. (0, -1,5) 53.

Radius

31. The line through the point (I, 3, -I) parallel to the

LX-axis
point (0, 2, 0)

Vi4
2
4 9

32. The set of points in space equidistant from the origin and the 33. The circle in whicb the plane through the point (I, 1,3) perpendicular to 1Ire z-axis meets the sphere of radius 5 centered at the origin
34. The set of points in space that lie 2 units from 1Ire point (0, 0, I) and, at 1Ire saroe time, 2 units from the point (0, 0, -I) Inequalities to Describe Sets of Points Write inequalities to describe the sets in Exercises 35-40.

(-I,t,-t)
x2

54. (0, -7,0)

Find the centers and radii of the spheres in Exercises 55-58. 55. x 2 y2 z2 4x - 4z = 0

35. The slab bounded by the planes z = 0 and z = I (planes

included) 36. The solid cube in the frrst octant bounded by 1Ire coordioate plaoes and 1Ire planes x = 2, y = 2, and z = 2

+++ 56. ++ + 57. + + +++ 9 58. 3x + + + 9

y2
z2 -

6y

8z = 0
Y

lx

2 2

2y2

2z2

z =

3y2

3z2

2y -

2z =

Theory and Examples 59. Find a formula for the distance from the point P(x, y, z) to the

37. The half-space consisting of the points 00 and below the xy-plane 38. The upper hemisphere of the sphere of radius I centered at the
origin

a. x-axis

b. y-axis b. yz-plane

c. z-axis

60. Find a formula for the distance from the point P(x, y, z) to the

39. The (a) interior and (b) exterior of the sphere of radius I centered at the point (I, I, I)
40. The closed regioo bounded by the spheres of radius I and radius 2 centered at the origin. (Closed means the spheres are to be included. Had we wanted the spheres left out, we would have asked for the open regioo bounded by the spheres. This is analogous to the way we use closed and open to describe intervals: closed means endpoints included, open means endpoints left out. Closed sets include boundaries; open sets leave them out)

a. xy-plane

c. xz-plane

61. Find the perimeter of the triangle with vertices A( -1,2, I), B(I, -I, 3), and C(3, 4, 5). 62. Show that the point p(3, I, 2) is equidistant from the points A(2, -1,3) andB(4, 3, I).
63. Find an equation for the set of all points equidistant from the planesy = 3 andy = -\. 64. Find an equation for the set of all points equidistant from the point (0, 0, 2) and the xy-plane. 65. Find the point on the sphere x 2 nearest thexy-plane.

Distance In Exercises 41-46, fmd the distsnce between points PI and P2.
41. Pl(l, I, I), 43. PI(I, 4, 5),

+(y - + +
3)' (z

5)' = 4

P 2(3, 3, 0)
P2(4, -2,7)

b. thepoint(O, 7, -5).

42. Pl( -I, 1,5), P2(2, 5, 0)

66. Find the point equidistant from the points (0, 0, 0), (0,4, 0), (3, 0, 0), and (2, 2, -3).

12.2

Vectors

665

12.2

__________________________________
Some of the things we measure are determined simply by their magnitudes. To record mass, length, or time, for example, we need only write down a number and name an appropriate unit of measure. We need more information to describe a force, displacement, or velocity. To describe a force, we need to record the direction in which it acts as well as how large it is. To describe a body's displacement, we have to say in what direction it moved as well as how far. To describe a body's velocity, we have to know where the body is headed as well as how fast it is going. In this section we show how to represent thiogs that have both magnitude and direction in the plane or in space.
Terminal

Component Form
A quantity such as force, displacement, or velocity is called a vector and is represented by a directed line segment (Fignre 12.7). The arrow points in the direction of the action and its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitably chosen uuit. For example, a force vector points in the direction in which the force acts and its length is a measure of the force's strength; a velocity vector points in the direction of motion and its length is the speed of the moving object. Figure 12.8 displays the velocity vector v at a specific location for a particle moving along a path in the plane or in space. (This application of vectors is studied in Chapter 13.)
y

AB is called a vector.
y

FIGURE 12.7

The directed line segment

B
A

_______ D

C
p

o
(a) two dimensions
x

o
E

(b) three dllnensions

FIGURE 12.9 The four arrows io the plane (directed lioe segments) shown here have the same length and direction. They therefore represeot the same vector, aodwewriteAB = cD = OP = EF.

FIGURE 12.8 The velocity vector of a particle moving aloog a path <a) io the plane (b) io space. The arrowhead on the path iodicates the direction of motion of the particle.

DEFINmONS The vector represented by the directed line segmen.!."AB has initial point A and terminal point B and its length is denoted by lAB I. Two vectors are equal if they have the same length aod direction.

FIGURE 12.10 A vector PQ io standard position has its initial point the origin.
The directed lioe segments PQ and v are parallel and have the same length.

The arrows we use when we draw vectors are understood to represent the same vector if they have the same length, are parallel, and point in the same direction (Fignre 12.9) regardless of the initial point. In textbooks, vectors are usually written in lowercase, boldface letters, for example u, v, and w. Sometimes we use uppercase boldface letters, such as F, to denote a force vector. In handwritten form, it is customary to draw small arrows above the letters, for example ii, ii, lV, andF. We need a way to represent vectors algebraically so that we can be more precise shout the direction of a vector. Let v = There is one directed line segment equal to whose initial point is the origin (Fignre 12.10). It is the representative ofv in standard position and is the vector we nonnally use to represent v. We can specify v by writing the

PQ.

PQ

666

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

coordinates of its terminal point (v" V2, v,) when v is in standard position. Ifv is a vector in the plane its terminal point (V" V2) has two coordinates.

DEFINITION
If v is a two-dimensional vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point (V" V2), then the component form of v is
v = (V" V2).

Ifv is a three-dimensional vector equal to the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point (V" V2, v,), then the componentform ofv is
v = (V" V2, V3).

So a two-dimensional vector is an ordered pair v = (v" V2) of real numbers, and a three-dimensional vector is an ordered triple v = (V" V2, V3) of real numbers. The numV2, and V3 are the components ofv. bers If v = (V" V2, V3) is represented by the directed line segment PQ, where the initial point is P(x"y" Z,) and the terminal point is Q(X2,Y2, Z2), then Xl + VI = X2, Yl + V2 = Y2, and Zl + V3 = Z2 (see Figure 12.10). Thus, VI = X2 - X" V2 = Y2 - Yl, and V3 = Z2 - Zl are the components of PQ. In summary, given the points P(x" y" Zl) and Q(X2,Y2, Z2), the standard position vector v = (v" V2, v,) equal to PQ is

v"

v = (X2 - X"Y2 - y"Z2 - Zl).

If v is two-dimensional with P(X"YI) and Q(X2,Y2) as points in the plane, then v = (X2 - X" Y2 - Yl). There is no third component for planar vectors. With this understanding, we will develop the algebra of three-dimensional vectors and simply drop the third component when the vector is tw(}-dimensional (a planar vector). Two vectors are equal if and only if their standard position vectors are identical. Thus (u" U2, U3) and (v" V2, V3) are equal if and only iful = v" U2 = V2, and U3 = V3. The magnitude or length of the vector PQ is the length of any of its equivalent directed line segment representations. In particular, if v = (X2 - X" Y2 - y" Z2 - Zl) is the standard position vector for PQ, then the distance formula gives the magnitude or length of v, denoted by the symbollvl orllvll.

The magnitude or length of the vector v = Ivl = Yv,'

PQ is the nonnegative number

X,)2

+ vl + vl

= Y(X2 -

(Y2 - Yll'

(Z2 - zll'

(see Figure 12.10).

The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector 0 = (0, 0) or 0 = (0, 0, 0). This vector is also the only vector with no specific direction.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the (a) component form and (b) length of the vector with initial point P( - 3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q( -5, 2, 2).
Solution

(a) The standard position vector v representing PQ has components

VI

X2 - Xl = -5 - (-3) = -2,

V2 = Y2 - Yl = 2 - 4 = -2,

12.2

Vectors

667

and
V3 = Z2 Z1 =

2 - I = I.

The component form of PQ is

v = (-2, -2, I).
y

(b) The length or magnitude of v = PQ is

I I I I
I I

Ivl

Y(_2)2

+ (-2)2 + (1)2

V9 =

3.

EXAMPLE 2 A small cart is being pulled along a smooth horizontal floor with a 20-lb force F making a 45 angle to the floor (Figure 12.11). What is the effective force moving the cart forward?
Solution
The effective force is the horizontal component ofF = (a, b), given by

FIGURE 12.11 The force pulling the cart forward is represented by the vector F

= IFI cos 45 = (20)(,?) "" 14.14 lb.

whose horizontal component is

the effective force (Example 2).

Notice that F is a two-dimensional vector.

Vector Algebra Operations

Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar multiplication. A scalar is simply a real number, and is called such when we want to draw attention to its differences from vectors. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are used to "scale" a vector by multiplication.

DEFINmONS
scalar. Addition:

Let u = (u"

U2, U3)

and v = (v"

V2, V3)

be vectors with k a

Scalar multiplication:

+ v = (U1 + v" U2 ku = (ku" ku2, ku3)

+ V2, U3 + V3)

We add vectors by addiog the correspondiog components of the vectors. We multiply a vector by a scalar by multiplying each component by the scalar. The definitions apply to planar vectors except there are ouly two components, (u" U2) and (Vb V2). The defioition of vector addition is illustrated geometrically for planar vectors io Figure 12.12a, where the initial poiot of one vector is placed at the termioal poiot of the other. Another ioterpretation is showo io Figure 12.12b (called the parallelogram law of
y y

__ ..... .- ..... ....---I

I

I I
I

o
(0) (b)

FIGURE 12.12
vector addition.

(a) Geomelric inlefpretation of the vector swn. (b) The parallelogram law of

668

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

addition), where the smn, called the resultant vector, is the diagonal of the parallelogram.

//
FIGURE 12.13 Scalar multiples ofu.

In physics, forces add vectorially as do velocities, accelerations, and so on. So the force

acting on a particle subject to two gravitational forces, for example, is obtained hy adding the two force vectors. Figure 12.13 displays a geometric interpretation of the product ku of the scalar k and vector u. If k > 0, then ku has the same direction as u; if k < 0, then the direction of ku is opposite to that of u. Comparing the lengths of u and ku, we see that

lkul

= V(ku,)2 + (ku2)2 + (ku 3)2 = Vk2(u,2 + ui + u,2)

=

WVU,2 + ui + u/

Ikllul.

The length of ku is the absolute value of the scalar k times the length of u. The vector ( -I)u = -u bas the same length as u but points in the opposite direction. The difference u - v of two vectors is defmed hy u-v=u+(-v). Ifu = (u" U2, U3) and v = (v" V2, V3), then
(a)

u - v = (u, - v" U2 - V2, U3 - V3). Note that (u - v) + v = u, so adding the vector (u - v) to v gives u (Figure 12.14a). Figure 12.14b shows the difference u - vas the smn u + (-v).

EXAMPLE 3
(a) 2u

Let u = (-1,3,1) and v = (4,7,0). Find the components of

(h) u - v (e)

+ 3v

I!ul.

Solution
(a) 2u + 3v = 2(-1,3, 1) + 3(4,7,0) = (-2,6,2) + (12,21,0) = (10,27,2) (h) u - v= (-1,3,1) - (4,7,0) = (-1 - 4,3 -7,1 - 0) = (-5,-4,1) (e)

FIGURE 12.14 (a)Thevector u - v, when added to v, gives u.

(b)u - v

= u + (-v).

I!ul I(

(!y !V1l.
=

Vector operations have many of the properties of ordinary arithmetic.

Properties orVeetor Operations Let u, v, w be vectors and a, b be scalars. 1.u+v=v+u 3. u + 0 = u 5. Ou = 0 7. a(bu) = (ab)u 9. (a + b)u = au + bu 2. 4. 6. 8. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) u + (-u) = 0 lu = u a(u + v) = au + av

These properties are readily verified using the definitions of vector addition and multiplication by a scalar. For instance, to establish Property 1, we have u

+v

= = = = =

(u," U2, U3) + (v," V2, V3) (u, + v" U2 + V2, U3 + V3) (v, + U" V2 + U2, V3 + U3) (v," V2, V3) + (u," U2, U3) v + u.

12.2 Vectors

669

When three or more space vectors lie io the same plane, we say they are coplanar vectors. For example, the vectors u, v, and u + v are always coplanar.

Unit Vectors
A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors are
i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0), and k = (0,0,1).

Aoy vector v = (Vh V2, V3) can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors as follows: v = (Vh V2, V3) = (VI> 0, 0)
= vl(l, 0, 0) = Vii

+ (0, V2, 0) + (0,0, V3)

+ v2j

+ V2(0, 1,0) + V3(0,0, 1) + V3k.

We call the scalar (or number) VI the i-component of the vector v, V2 the j-component, and V3 the k-<omponent.1n component form, the vector from P,(Xh Yh z,) to P2(X2,Y2, Z2) is

(Figure 12.15). Wheneverv oF O,itslength Ivl is not zero and

is P-;/>2 (X2 - xl)i (Z2 - ZI)k.

FIGURE 12.15 The vector from PI to P2 + (Y2 - YI)j +

That is, v/lvl is a unit vector io the direction of v, called tbe direction of the nonzero
vectorv.

EXAMPLE 4 P2(3, 2, 0).

Solution

Fiod a unit vector u io the direction of the vector from P,(l, 0, 1) to

We divide P-;P2 by its length:

P-;P2 IP-;P21

= (3 -

l)i

(2 - O)j

(0 - I)k = 2i

+ 2j
1=

- k 3

= Y(2j2

(2)2

(-1)2 = Y4

+4+

v'9 =

The unit vector u is the direction of P,P2.

EXAMPLE 5 If v = 3i - 4j is a velocity vector, express v as a product of its speed times a unit vector io the direction of motion.
Solution Speed is the magnitude (length) of v: Ivl = Y(3j2
HIsTORICAL BIOGRAPHY

(-4j2 =

V9+16 =

5.

The unit vector vI Iv I has the same direction as v:

v

Hermann Grassmann
(180!l-1877)

3i-4j 3.4. 5 = 5' - 5 J

670

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

So
v = 3i -

/ Length

4i

5Gi - ti).
Direction of motion

(speed)

In summary, we can express any nonzero vector v in terms of its two importsnt features,
length and direction, by writing v = Iv II; I .

IfvoF 0, then 1. 1;1 is a unit vector in the direction of v;

2. the equation v = Ivll;1 expresses v as its length times its direction.

EXAMPLE 6 A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector v = 2i + 2i - k. Express the force F as a product of its magnitude and direction.

Solution

The force vector has magnitude 6 and direction I; I ' so

v F = 6__ = 6

Ivl

21 2i + 2i - k = 6__._+-c2c:--i_-_k 2 +22 +(-1)2 Y2 3

=6(t i +t i

-t

k ).

Midpoint of a Line Segment

Vectors are often useful in geometry. For example, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment are found by aversging. The midpoint M of the line segment joining points PI(X"y"ZI) and P2(X2, Y2, Z2) is the point
Xl (

+ X2
2 '

Yl

+ Y2 Zl + Z2)
2 ' 2 .

To see why, observe (Figure 12.16) that

o
FIGURE 12.16 The coordinates of tire midpoint are the averages of the coordinates ofPI andP2.

Xl

+ X2
2
1

Yl

+ Y2
2 I

+ -2- k .

Zl + Z2

EXAMPLE 7

The midpoint of the segment joining P I (3, -2,0) andP2(7, 4, 4) is

0 + 3 + 7 -2 + 2' 2 '2

4 4) = (5"2) 1 .

12.2 Vectors

671

Applications
An important application of vectors occurs in navigation.
N

EXAMPLE 8 Ajet airliner, flying due east at 500 mph in still air, encounters a 70-mph tailwind blowing in the clirection 60 north of east. The airplane holds its compass heading due east but, because of the wind, acquires a new ground speed and direction. What are they?
500
NOfroSCAIE

FIGURE 12.17 Vectors representing tire velocities of the airplane u and tailwind v in Example 8.

Solution lfu = the velocity of the airplane alone and v = the velocity of the tailwind, then lui = 500 and Ivl = 70 (Figure 12.17). The velocity of the airplane with respect to the ground is given by the magnitode and clirection of the resultant vector u + v. Ifwe let the positive x-axis represent east and the positive y-axis represent north, then the component forms of u and v are
u = (500,0) Therefore, u lu and
(J =

and

v = (70 cos 60, 70 sin 60) = (35,35\1'3).

+v

= =

(535,35\1'3) \15352

= 535i

+ 35\1'3 j

+ vi

(35V'3)2 '" 538.4

tan-I

'" 6.50

Figure

12.17

The new ground speed of the airplane is about 538.4 mph, and its new clirection is about _ 6.5 north of east. Another important application occurs in physics and engineering when several forces are acting on a single object.

55'

40'

EXAMPLE 9 A 75-N weight is suspended by two wires, as shown in Figure 12.18a. Find the forcea F 1 and F 2 acting in both wirea.
The force vectors F 1 and F 2 have magnitudes IF 11 and IF 21 and components that are measured in Newtons. The resultant force is the sum Fl + F2 and must be equal in magnitude and acting in the opposite (or upward) clirection tu the weight vectur w (see Figure 12.18b). It follows from the figure that Fl = (-IFI Icos 55, IFdsin55) and F2 = (IF2Icos40, IF2Isin400).

Solution

(a)

Since Fl

+ F2

= (0,75), the resultant vectur leads to the system of equations

-IFl Icos 55 IFdsin55

+ IF21cos40 + IF21sin400

= 0 = 75.

Solving for IF21 in the 1mt equation and substituting the result into the second equation, we get IF21 =
It follows that

w (b)

(0. -75)

IFdcos55 cos 40

and

. IF llsm55

IFdcos55. _ cos 40 sm40 - 75.

FIGURE 12.18 in Example 9.

The suspeuded weight

IFll = sin 55

75 cos 55 tan 40 '" 57.67N,

672

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

and

IF2 I =

75 cos 55 sin 55 cos 4()0 + cos 55 sin 40 75 cos 55 sin(550 + 400) '" 43.18 N.

The force vectors are then F, = (-33.08,47.24) and F2 = (33.08,27.76).

Exercises 12.2
Vectors In the Plane
In Exercises 1--1!, letu = (3, -2) and v = (-2,5). Find the (a) compooent form and (b) magnitude (length) of the vector.
1. 3u

Geometric Representations
In Exercises 23 and 24, copy vectors U, v, and ... head to tail as needed to sketch the indicated vector.

2. -2v 4. u - v 6. -2u
8.

3. u

+v
4

5.2u-3v 7.

+ 5v
12

5u + 5v

-TI u + TIv
L U

In Exercises !l-16, f"md the compooent form of the vector.

9. The vector PQ, where P = (1,3) and Q = (2, -I) 10. The vector where 0 is the origin and P is the midpoint of segmentRS, whereR = (2, -I) andS = (-4,3) 11. The vector from the point A = (2, 3) to the origin where A=(I,-I),B=(2,0), 12. The sum of AB and C = (-1,3),andD = (-2,2) 13. The unit vector that makes an angle 8 = 27T/3 with the positive

+V

b.u+v+w
d. u - w

oP

c. u - v
24.

cD,

x-axis
14. The unit vector that makes an angle 8 = -37T/4 with the positive

x-axis
15. The unit vector obtained by rotating the vector (0, I) 120" coun-

terclockwise about the origin

16. The unit vector obtained by rotating the vector (I, 0) 135" coonterc10ckwise about the origin
L U V

b.u-v+w

Vectors In Space
In Exercises 17-22, express each vector in the form v = l'2j + v3k.
Vii

c. 2u - v

d.u+v+w

17. P-;P2 if P, is the point (5, 7, -I) and P2 is the point (2, 9, -2) 18. P-;P2 if P, is the point (I, 2, 0) and P2 is the point (- 3, 0, 5)
19.

Length and DIrection

In Exercises 25-30, express each vector as a prodoct of its length and direction.
25.2i+j-2k 27.5k 29. _I_i - _I_j __I_k 26.9i-2j+6k

20.

AB ifA is the point (-7, -8, I) andB is the point (-10,8, I) AB ifA is the point (1,0,3) andB is the point( -1,4,5)

21. 5u - vifu = (I, I, -I) and v = (2,0,3) 22. -2u+ 3vifu = (-1,0,2) and v = (1,1,1)

v'6

v'6

v'6

30.

v'3 + v'3 + v'3

12.2 31. Find the vectors whose lengths and directions are given. Try to do the calculations without writiog. Length Direction

Vectors

673

30-

45-

a. 2
b.

V3
"2
1

-k

c.

1j + i
5

d. 7

.6. i _.2. j +1 k
777

46. Consider a 50-N weight suspended by two wires as shown in the accompanying figure. If the magoi1ude of vector F I is 35 N, fmd angle a and the magni1ude ofvectorF,.

32. Find the vectors whose lengths and directions are given. Try to do the calculations without writiog. Length Direction
-j

a. 7
b.

v2
13

_li - i
5
3.

k
12 k __I_k 47. Consider a woN weight suspended by two wires as shown in the accompanying figure. If the magoi1ude of vector F, is 100 N, fmd w aod the magoi1ude of vector Fl.
40'

c'IT
d. a> 0

TI 1 - TIl - TI
_I_i

4.

v2

+ _I_j

V3

V6

33. Find a vector ofmagoi1ude 7 in the directioo ofv = 12i - 5k. 34. Find a vector of magoi1ude 3 in the directioo opposite to the directionofv = (1/2)i - (1/2)j - (1/2)k.
Direction and Midplrints In Exercises 35--38, find

35'

a. the direction of p-;P, aod

b. the midpoint ofline segment PI P,.
48. Consider a 25-N weight suspended by two wires as shown in the accompaoying figure. If the magoi1udes of vectors F I and F, are both 75 N, then angles a and fJ are equal. Find a.
a

35. PI( -I, I, 5) 36. PI(I, 4, 5) 37. P I (3, 4, 5) 38. PI(O, 0, 0)

39. If AB 40. IfAB

P,(2, 5, 0) P,(4, -2,7) P,(2, 3, 4) P,(2, -2, -2)

fl

= i + 4j - 2k aodB is the point (5, 1,3), fmdA. = -7i + 3j + 8kaodAisthepoint(-2,-3,6),fmdB.

49. Location A bird flies from its nest 5 km in the directioo 60' north of east, where it stops to rest 00 a tree. It then flies 10 km in the directioo due southeast aod lands atop a telephone pole. Place an xy-coordinate system so that the origin is the bird's nest, the

Theory and Applications

41. Linear combination Let u = 2i + j. v = i + j, and w = i - j. Find scalars a and b such that u = av + bw.
42. Linear combination Let u = i - 2j, v = 2i + 3j, aod w = i + j. Write U = UI + U2. where UI is parallel to v and U2 is parallel to w. (See Exercise 41.) 43. Velocity An airplane is flying in the directioo 25' west of north at 800 kmfh. Find the compooent form of the velocity of the air-

x-axis points east, and the y-axis points north.

a. At what point is the tree located?
b. At what point is the telephone pole?

plane, assuming that the positive x-axis represents due east and the positive y-axis represents due north.
44. (Continuation of Example 8.) Wbat speed and directioo should the jetliner in Example 8 have in order for the resultant vector to be 500 mph due east? 45. Consider a lOO-N weight suspended by two wires as shown in the accompanying figure. Find the magoi1udes and compooents of the force vectors FI aodF,.

50. Use similar triangles to fmd the coordinates of the point Q that divides the segment from PI(XIoYI, ZI) to P,(x"y" z,) into two leogths whose ratio is p/q = r. 51. Medians of a triangle Suppose that A, B, and C are the corner points of the thin 1riangn1ar plate of constant density shown here. a. Find the vector from Cto the midPointM ofsideAB.
b. Find the vector from C to the point that lies lwD-thirds of the way from C to M 00 the median CM.

674

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

53. Let ABCD be a general, not necessarily planar, quadrilateral in space. Show that the two segments joining the midpoints of opposite sides of ABCD bisect each other. (Hint: Show that the segments have the same midpoint)
54. Vectors are drawn from the center of a regular n-sided polygon in the plane to the vertices of the polygon. Show that the sum of the vectors is zero. (Hint: What happens to the sum if you rotate the polygon about its center?)

c. Find the coordinates of the point in which the medians of I!.AJJC intersect According to Exercise 17, Section 6.6, this
point is the center of mass.
C(I, I, 3)

c.m.
B(l, 3, 0)
M

55. Suppose that A, B, and C are vertices of a triangle and that a, b, and c are, the midpoints of the opposite sides. Show thatAa + Bb + Co o. 56. Unit veeton io the plane Show that a unit vector in the plane (cosO)i + (sinO)j,obtainedbyrotating can be expressed as u
i through an angle 0 in the couoterclockwise direction. Esplain why this form gives every unit vector in the plane.

A(4, 2, 0)

52. Find the vector from the origin to the point of intersection of the medians of the triangle whose vertices are

A(I,-1,2),

B(2,1,3),

and

C(-1,2,-1).

12.3

The Dot Product

If a force F is applied to a particle moving along a path, we often need to know the magnitode of the force in the direction of motion. Ifv is parallel to the tangent line to the path at
the point where F is applied, then we want the magnitode ofF in the direction ofv. Figure 12.19 shows that the scalar quantity we seek is the length IFI cosO, where 0 is the angle between the two vectors F and v. In this section we show how to calcoIate easily the angle between two vectors directly from their components. A key part of the calcoIation is an expression called the dot product. Dot products are also called inner or scalar products because the product results in a scalar, not a vector. After investigating the dot product, we apply it to finding the projection of one vector onto another (as displayed in Figure 12.19) and to finding the work done by a constant force acting through a displacement.

Length

IF I cos Ii

FIGURE 12.19 The magnitude of the force F in the direction of vector v is the length IFI cos 0 oftheprojectioo ofF ontov.

Angle Between Vectors

When two nonzero vectors u and v are placed so their initial points coincide, they form an angle 0 of measure 0 ,,; 0 ,,; 1f (Figure 12.20). If the vectors do not lie along the same line, the angle 0 is measured in the plane containing both of them. If they do lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point in the same direction and 1f if they point in opposite directions. The angle 0 is the angle between u and v. Theorem I gives a fonnula to detennine this angle.

THEOREM i-Angle Between Two Vectors

vectors u =
(Ulo U2, U3)

The angle 0 between two nonzero and v = (Vlo V2, V3) is given by

oFIGURE 12.20 The angle between u and v.

cos

-I (utVt +

lullvl

U2 V2

+ U3V3)

Before proving Theorem 1, we focus attention on the expression UI VI + U2 V2 + U3 V3 in the calcoIation for O. This expression is the sum of the products of the corresponding components for the vectors u and v.

12.3

The Dotproduct

675

DEFINmON The dot product u' v ("u dot v") of vectors u = (Ul, U2, U3) and v = (Vl, V2, V3) is

EXAMPLE 1 (8) (1,-2,-1)'(-6,2,-3)

= =

(1)(-6)

+ (-2)(2) + (-1)(-3) -6 - 4 + 3 = -7
=

(b)

(!i +

3j

k)

'(4i -

+ 2k)

(!)t4) +

(3)(-1)

(1)(2) =

The dot prodoct of a pair of two-dimensional vectors is dermed in a similar fashion:

(Ul, U2)' (Vl, V2) = U1 V1

+ U2V2.

We will see throughoot the remainder of the book that the dot product is a key tool for many important geometric and physical calculations in space (and the plane), not just for rmding the angle between two vectors.
Proof of Theorem 1 Applying the law of cosines (Equation (8), Section 1.3) to the triangle in Figure 12.21, we find that

Iwl2 = lul 2 + Ivl2 - 21ullvl cosO 21ullvl cosO = lul 2 + Ivl 2 - Iw1 2 . lul 2 = (VU12 Ivl 2 = (Vv,' Iwl 2 =
= =

Law of cosines

Becausew = u - v,thecomponentformofwis(U1 - Vl,U2 - V2,U3 - V3).SO

FIGURE 12.21 The parallelognun law of addition of vectors gives w = u - v.

+ ul + ul)' = u,' + ul + uJ' + vl + vl)' = v,' + vl + vi (V(U1 - V1)2 + (U2 - V2)' + (U3 - V3)2)' (U1 - v,)2 + (U2 - vd + (U3 - V3)2
2UtVt

u? -

Vt

+ ui -

2U2V2

+ vi + ul -

2U3V3

+ vl

and Therefore, 21ullvl cosO = lul 2 + Ivl2 - Iwl2 = 2(U1V1 lullvl cos 0 = U1 V1
UtVt

+ U2V2 + U3V3)

+ U2V2 + U3V3
+
U2'V2

U3V3

cosO = Since 0
:5 ()

lullvl

<

1T,

we have
V V U2 V2 0 - cos-1 (U1 1 +lullvl + U3 3) . -

In the notation of the dot prodoct, the angle between two vectors u and v is

o=

1 cos- C:I'I:I)'

676

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

EXAMPLE 2
Solution

Find the angle between u = i - 2j - 2k and v = 6i

+ 3j + 2k.

We use the fonnula above: u'v = (1)(6)

(-2)(3)

+ (-2)(2) =

6 - 6 - 4 = -4

lui = VO)' + (-2), + (-2), = v9 = 3

Ivl = V(6)'
() =
1

(3)'

(2)2 =
1

v49 = 7

cos- C:I'I:I) = cos-

'"

1.76radians.

The angle fonnula applies to twodimensional vectors as well.

y
B(3,5)

EXAMPLE 3 Find the angle () in the triangle ABC detennined by the vertices = (0, O),B = (3,5), and C = (5,2) (Figure 12.22).

Solution The angle () is the angle between the vectors CA and CB. The component fonns of these two vectors are

eA
FIGURE 12.22 The 1riangle in
Example 3.

(-5, -2)

and

cE

(-2,3).

First we calculate the dot product and magnitudes of these two vectors.

eA'cE =
leAl
=

(-5)(-2) + (-2)(3)

V(-5)' + (-2), = v29

+ (3)'
=

IcEl = V(-2), Then applying the angle formula, we have

v'13

'" 78.10

or

1.36 radians.

Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors

1f/2.

Two nonzero vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is For such vectors, we have u' v = 0 because cos (1f/2) = O. The converse is also true. If u and v are nonzero vectors with u' v = lullvl cos () = 0, then cos () = 0 and () = cos- 1 0 = 1f/2.

DEFINITION
ifu'v = O.

Vectors u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only

EXAMPLE 4

To determine if two vectors are orthogonal, calculate their dot product.

+ (-2)(6) = O. (b) u = 3i - 2j + k and v = 2j + 4k are orthogonal because u' v = (3)(0) + (-2)(2) + (1)(4) = O.
<a> u = (3, -2) and v = (4,6) are orthogonal because u' v = (3)(4)

12.3

The Dotproduct

677

(c) 0 is orthogonal to every vector u since

o u

= (0,0, O) (UI. U2, U3) = (O)(Ul) =

o.

(0)(U2)

+ (0)(U3)

Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections

The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of real numbers (scalars).

Properties of the Dot Product

Ifu, v, and w are any vectors and c is a scalar, then 1. U'V = V'U 2. (eu)'v = u'(ev) = e(u'v)
3. u'(v

+ w)

= U'V

+ U'w

4.

U'U

= lul 2

5.0u=0.

HIsTORICAL BIOGRAPHY

Carl Friedrich Gauss

(1777-1855)

Proofs of Properties 1 and 3 The properties are easy to prove using the detmition. For instance, here are the proofs of Properties 1 and 3.
1.
U'V U'

UlVl

+ U2V2 + U3V3

VlUl

+ V2U2 + V3U3

V'U

3.

(v

+ w)

= (UIo U2, U3)' (VI = Ul(Vl

WI. V2

+ W2, V3 + W3)

+ WI) + U2(V2 + W2) + U3(V3 + W3)

/1.,
R

=uv+uw

PS

R P
S

We now return to the problem of projecting one vector onto another, posed in the opening to this section. The projection of u = PQ onto a nonzero vector v = (Figure 12.23) is the vector PR determined by dropping a perpendicular from Q to the line PS. The notation for this vector is proj. u ("the vector projection ofu onto v").

FIGURE 12.23 u onto v.

The vector projection of

vi

If u represents a force, then projv u represents the effective force in the direction of v (Figure 12.24). If the angle Ii between u and v is acute, projv u has length Iu I cos Ii and direction Iv I (Figure 12.25). If Ii is obtuse, cos Ii < 0 and proj. u has length -I u I cos Ii and direction Ivl. In both cases,

-vi

proj.u = (lui cos Ii)

v proj,.u

1:1
lui cos 8 lullvl cos 8 Ivl
u',

FIGURE 12.24 Ifwe pull on the box with force u, the effective force moving the box forward in the direction v is the projection ofo ontov.

u.v) v ( Ivl Ivl u.v) ( Ivl2 V.

Ivl

678

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Length

lui cos 9
(a)

Length

-lui cos 9
(b)

FIGURE 12025 Tbe\ength ofprojyu is (a) lui cos II if cos II '" (b)-lui cos II if cos II < O.

oand

The number Iu I cos Ii is called the scalar component of u in the direction of v (or of u onto v). To summarize,

The vector projection of u onto v is the vector prOJyU =

(uov)v. Ivl2
UOT;!"

(1)

The scalar component of u in the direction of v is the scalar lui cos Ii =

uv lVT =

(2)

Note that both the vector projection of u onto v and the scalar component of u onto v depend only on the direction of the vector v and not its length (because we dot u with v / Iv I , which is the direction of v).

EXAMPLE 5 Find the vector projection of u = 6i and the scalar component ofu in the direction ofv.
Solution We find projy u from Equation (1):

+ 3j +

2k onto v = i - 2j - 2k

6-6-4. . proJy u = v 0v v = 1 + 4 + 4 (. - 2J - 2k)

=

uov

-1(i - 2j - 2k) = -1i

9999'

We f"md the scalar component of u in the direction of v from Equation (2): lui cos Ii = UOI;I = (6i
=

3j

+ 2k)0

(t

i - t j - tk)

2 - 2 -

4 4 3 = -3'

+ 2j

Equations (1) and (2) also apply to two-dimensional vectors. We demonstrate this in the next example.

EXAMPLE 6 Find the vector projection of a force F = 5i the scalar component ofF in the direction ofv.

onto v = i - 3j and

12.3 The Dotproduct

679

Solution

The vector projection is proj. F =

=

5 - 6 (i - 3j) 1+9

-...!.. (i
10

- 3j)

-TO'

1 .

3 . lO J .

The scalar component ofF in the direction ofv is IFI cosO

=-1-1 v

Fv

5 - 6

---

vi

v'W.

A routine calculation (see Exercise 29) verifies that the vector u - proj. u is orthogonal to the projection vector proj. u (which has the same direction as v). So the equation
. u = pro).u

. (u - pro).u) = (u.v) V Ivl2

Parallel to v

( u - (u.v)) Ivl2 V
Orthogonal to v

expresses u as a sum of orthogonal vectors.

Work

1----1
I I

:
I I I

IFI cos 6

In Chapter 6, we calculated the work done by a constant force of magnitude F in moving an object through a distance d as W = Fd. That formula holds ouly if the force is directed along the line of motion. If a force F moving an object through a displacement D = has some other direction, the work is performed by the component of F in the direction of D. If 0 is the angle between F and D (Figure 12.26), then

PQ

FIGURE 12.26 The wotk done by a constant force F during a displacement D is ( IF I cos 8) ID I, which is the dot product

component Work = (scalar direction ofOfF)(1ength 0 f D ) in the D (lFI cosO)IDI FD.

FD.

DEFINmON
mentD = PQis

The work done by a constant force F acting through a displaceW= FD.

EXAMPLE 7 IflFI = 40N(newtons), IDI F in acting from P to Q is

Work = FD
= IFIIDI cosO = (40)(3) cos 60

= 3m,andO = 60, the work done by

De:fmition

Given values

= (120)(1/2) = 60 J (joules).

We encounter more challenging work problems in Chapter 16 when we learn to f"md the work done by a variable force along a path in space.

680

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Exercises 12.3
Dot Product and Projections In Exercises 1-8, fmd
L V'

a. Showthat
cos a =

u, lvi, lui

a Fr'

cos,B =

Fr'

cos 1 =

Fr'

b. the cosine of the angle between v and u

and cos2 a

+ cos2 fj + cos2 'Y = 1. These cosines are called

c. the scalar component ofn in the direction ofv

the direction cosines of v.

b. Unit vectors are built from direction cosine. Show that if v = ai + bj + ck is a unit vector, then a, b, and c are the

d. the vector projy u.

1. v = 2i - 4j + Vsk,

u = -2i + 4j - Vsk u = 5i + 12j u = 3j + 4k

2. v = (3/5)i + (4/5)k,
3. v = lOi + 11j - 2k, 5. v = 5j - 3k, 6.v=-i+j, 7. v
& v
=

direction cosines ofv.

16. Water main construction A water main is to be constructed

with a 20% grade in the nurth direction and a 10% grade in the east direction. Determine the angle 8 required in the water main for the turn from nurth to east.

4. v = 2i + 10j - 11k, u = 2i + 2j + k
u = i + j + k u=v2i+V3j+2k
=

5i

+ j, u

2i

+
u

Wj

(:n,

(:n,Theory and Examples 17. Sums IUld dilJerence. In the accompanying figore, it looks as ifvl + V2 and VI - V2 are orthogonal. Is this mere coincidence, or are there circumstances uoder which we may expect the som of two vectors to be urthogona1 to their difference? Give reasons for
your answer.

D Find the angles between the vectors in Exercises !l-12 to the nearest
huodredth of a radian.
9. u=2i+j, v=i+2j-k v = 3i + 4k v = V3i + j - 2k v=-i+j+k 10. u = 2i - 2j + k, 11. u = V3i - 7j,

Angle Between Vectors

12. u=i+v2j-v2k,

13. TrilUlgle Find the measures of the angles of the mangle whose vertices are A = (-1,0), B = (2, I), and C = (I, -2). 14. Rectangle Find the measures of the angles between the diagonals of the rectangle whose vertices are A = (I, O),B = (0,3), C = (3,4), andD = (4, I). 15. Direction angles and direction cosines The direction angles a, {3, and "y of a vector v = ai + bj + ck are dermed as follows:

a is the angle between v and the positive x-axis (0 :s; a :s; '11')

,B is the angle between v and the positive y-axis (0 '" ,B '" 'IT)
1 is the angle between v and the positive z-axis (0 '" 1 '" 'IT). 18. Orthogons1ity on a circle Suppose that AB is the diameter of a circle with center 0 and that C is a p-oint on one of the two arcs joiningA andB. Show that and CB are urthogona1.

cA

19. Diagonals of a rhombus Show that the diagonals of a rhombus (parallelogram with sides of equa1lengtil) are perpendicular.

12.3

The Dot Product

681

20. Perpendicular diagonals Show that squares are the only rec tangles with perpendicular diagonals. 21. When parallelograms ore rectangles Prove that a parallelo gram is a rectangle if and only if its diagonals are equal in length. (This fact is often exploited by carpenters.) 22. Diagonal ofporallelogram Show that the indicated diagonal of the parallelogram determined by vectors u aod v bisects the aogle betweenuandviflul Ivl.

Equations for Unes in the Plane 31. Line perpendicular to a vector Show that v ai + bj is perc by establishing that the slope pendicular to the line ax + by

of the vector v is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the given line. 32. Line porallel to a vector Show that the vector v ai + bj is c by establishing that the slope of parallel to the line bx - ay
the line segment representing v is the sarne as the slope of the given line. In Exercises 33-36, use the result of Exercise 31 to fmd an equation for the line 1hrough P perpendicular to v. Then sketch the line. Include v in your sketch as a vector starting at the origin.

23. Projectile motion A gun with muzzle velocity of 1200 ft/sec is frred at an angle of 8' above the horizontal. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity. 24. tnctined plane Suppose that a box is being towed up ao inclined plane as shown in the figure. Find the force w needed to ma1re the component of the force parallel to the inclined plane equal to 2.S lb.

33.P(2,1),

34.P(-1,2),
v -2i + j 36. P(ll, 10), v 2i - 3j

35. P( -2, -7),

In Exercises 37-40, use the result of Exercise 32 to fmd ao equation for the line through P parallel to v. Then sketch the line. Include v in your sketch as a vector starting at the origin.

37. P(-2, I),

39. P(I,2), v

i - j -i - 2j

38. P(O, -2), 40. P(I, 3), v

2i + 3j 3i - 2j

Work
41. Work along a tine Find the work done by a force F Si (magnitnde S N) in moving ao object along the line from the otigin to the point (I, I) (distance in meters). 25. a. Cauchy-Schwartz inequality Since u' v Iu II v I cos 9, show that the inequality Iu v I '" Iu II v I holds for any vectors u and v. b. Under what circumstances, if any, does Iu v I equal Iu II v I ? 42. Locomotive The Union Pacific's Big Boy locomotive could pull 6000-ton 1l'ains with a tractive effort (Pull) of 602,148 N (13S,375 Ib). At this level of effort, about how much work did Big Bay do on the (approximately straight) 60S-kin journey from

San Francisco to Los Angeles?

43. lnelined plane How much work does it take to slide a crate 20 m along a loading dock by pulling on it with a 200 N force at an aogle of 30' from the horizontal? 44. Sailboat The wind passing over a boat's sail exerted a 1000-lb magnitude force F as shown here. How much work did the wind perform in moving the boat forward I mi? Answer in foot-pounds.

Give reasons for your answer.

26. Copy the axes and vector shown here. Then shade in the points (x,y) for which (xi + yj) v '" O. JustifY your answer.
y

60'
magnitude f"",e

27. Orthogonal unit vectors If Ul and tors and v = aUI + bU2,f'mdvut.

U2

are orthogonal unit vec-

28. CanceDation in dot products In real-number multiplication, if U'VI = U\l2 and u =F 0, we can cancel the u and conclude that V2. Does the same rule hold for the dot product? That is, if U'VI = U'V2andu =F O,canyouconcludethatvl = v2?Give

v,

Angles Between Lines In the Plane The acute angIe between intenecting lines that do not cross at right aogles is the same as the angle determined by vectors normal to the lines or by the vectors para1lel to the lines.
L2 L2

reasons for your answer.

29. Using the definitioo of the projection ofu onto v, show by direct O. calculation that (u - proj. u) projy u 30. A force F 2i + j - 3k is applied to a spacecraft with velocity 3i - j. Express F as a sum of a vectur para1lel to v vector v and a vector orthogonal to v.

682

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

47. 48. 49.

Use this fact and the results of Exercise 31 or 32 to rmd the acute angles betweeo the lines in Exercises 45-50.

45. 46.

V3x - y x + V3y

-2, x 1,

V3y
3

(1 - V3)x

+ (1 + V3)y

V3x-I,

-V3x+2

50. 12x + 5y

1,

2x - 2y

12.4

_ _e_C _s_ _ _o_ _c_ _________________________________ Th _rn s Pr du t

In studying lines in the plane, when we needed to describe how a line was tilting, we used the notions of slope and angle of inclination. In space, we want a way to describe how a plane is tilting. We accomplish this by multiplying two vectors in the plane together to get a third vector perpendicular to the plane. The direction of this third vector tells us the ''inclination'' of the plane. The product we use to multiply the vectors together is the vector or cross product, the second of the two vector multiplication methods. We study the cross product in this section.

The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space

We start with two nonzero vectors u and v in space. Ifu and v are not parallel, they determine a plane. We select a unit vector n perpendicular to the plane by the right-hand rule. TIris means that we choose n to be the unit (normal) vector that points the way your right thumb points when your f'mgers curl1hrough the angle 0 from u to v (Figure 12.27). Then the cross product u X v ("u cross v") is the vector defined as follows.

DEFINITION
u X v
FIGURE 12.27 The construction of

(lullvl sinO) n

u X v.
Unlike the dot product, the cross product is a vector. For this reason it's also called the vector product of u and v, and applies only to vectors in space. The vector u X v is orthogonal to both u and v because it is a scalar multiple of n. There is a straightforward way to calculate the cross product of two vectors from their components. The method does not require that we know the angle between them (as suggested by the definition), but we postpone that calculation momentarily so we can focus first on the properties of the cross product. Since the sines of 0 and 1f are both zero, it makes sense to define the cross product of two parallel nonzero vectors to be O. If one or both of u and v are zero, we also define u X v to be zero. TIris way, the cross product of two vectors u and v is zero ifand only ifu and v are parallel or one or both of them are zero. Parallel Vectors Nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u X v The cross product obeys the following laws. Properties of the Cross Product If u, v, and w are any vectors and r, s are scalars, then 1. (ru) X (sv)
3. v X u

O.

(rs)(u X v)

2. u X (v 4. (v

-(u X v)

+ w) + w) X u

u X v v X u

+u Xw +w Xu

6. u X (v X w)

(u'w)v - (u'v)w

12.4

The (ross Product

683

W
FIGURE 12.28
v XU.

Xu

The construction of

To visualize Property 3, for example, notice that when the fingers of your right hand curl through the angle 0 from v to u, your thumb points the opposite way; the unit vector we choose in forming v X u is the negative of the one we choose in forming u X v (Figure 12.28). Property I can be verified by applying the definition of cross product to both sides of the equation and comparing the results. Property 2 is proved in Appenrux 8. Property 4 follows by multiplying both sides of the equation in Property 2 by -I and reversing the order of the products using Property 3. Property 5 is a detmition. As a rule, cross product multiplication is not associative so (u X v) X w does not generally equal u X (v X w). (See Additioual Exercise 17.) When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross products of i, j, and k, we find (Figure 12.29)

i Xj =

-0

X i) = k

/
and

j X k = -(k X j) = i

k X i = -(i X k) = j

Diagram for recalling these products

i Xi = j X j = k X k =

o.

Iu X V I Is the Area of a Parallelogram

Because n is a unit vector, the magnitode of u X v is
FIGURE 12.29 The pairwise cross products ofi, j, and k

lu X

vi

lullvl sinO.

Area

= base' height

lui Ivllsin 01 luxvl

This is the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v (Figure 12.30), Iu I being the base of the parallelogram and Iv II sin () I the height.

Determi nant Form ula for u X v

Our next objective is to calculate u X v from the components of u and v relative to a Cartesian coordinate system. Suppose that u = uji

FIGURE 12.30 The parallelogram detennined by u and v.

u2j

U3k

and

v = vji

v2j

V3k.

Then the distributive laws and the rules for multiplying i, j, and k tell us that
u X v = (uji

u2j

U3k) X (vji X j

v2j

V3k)

= Uj vji X i

+ Uj V2i

+ Uj V3i
j

X k

+ u2vd X i + + u3vjk X i +

u2v2j X U3V2k X

+ U2V3 j X k j + U3V3k X k
U3Vj)j

= (U2V3 - U3V2)i -

(UjV3 -

(UjV2 -

u2 vj)k.

The component terms in the last line are hard to remember, but they are the same as the terms in the expansion of the symbolic determinant

684

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

I Determinant.

So we restate the calculation in this easy-to-remember form. Calculating the Cross Product as a Determinant Ifu = uli + u2j + U3k and v = vii + v2j + V3k, then
i
u X v =
Ul
VI

2 X 2 and 3 X 3 determinants are evaluated as follows:

I: !I
EXAMPLE

= ad - be

j
U2 V2

k
U3 V3

(2)(3) - (1)( -4)

=6+4=10

EXAMPLE 1
Solution

Find u X v and v X u ifu = 2i + j + k and v = -4i + 3j + k.

_a,lbl b'l + a,lbl b'l

Ct
C3

Ct

C2

uXv=

EXAMPLE

2 -4

J 1 3

1 = I 3

II

-5
2 -4

3
I 3

I
I I

:1
:1 +
+ 4)

= -2i - 6j + 10k v X u = -(u X v)

=

2i + 6j - 10k

-5(1 - 3) - 3(2

EXAMPLE 2 Find a vector perpendicular to the plane of P(i, -I, 0), Q(2, I, - I), and R( -1,1,2) (Figure 12.31).
Solution The vector PQ X PR is perpendicular to the plane because it is perpendicular to both vectors. In terms of components,

+ 1(6 + 4) = 10 - 18 + 10 = 2
(For more information, see the Web site at www.aw.comlthomas.)

PQ = PR =
.............. PQ X PR =

(2 - l)i + (1 + I)j + (-I - O)k = i + 2j - k (-I - l)i + (1 + I)j + (2 - O)k = -2i + 2j + 2k

1 -2

z
R(-I, 1,2)

j 2 2

12

-11' _I -21 2'

=6i+6k.

":/ :..

------

O. // ;(.-

EXAMPLE 3 Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(I, -1,0), Q(2, 1, -I), and R( -I, 1,2) (Figure 12.31).
Solution The area of the parallelogram determined by P, Q, andR is

,,,"

IPQ X PRI

= 16i + 6kl = V(6)' + (6)'

=

Values from Example 2

v'2-36 =

6v'2.

ha\fof IPQ X PRI (Example 3).

FIGURE 12.31 The vector PQ X PR is perpendicular to the plane of triangle PQR (Example 2). The area of 1riang1e PQR is

The triangle's area is half of this, or 3v'2.

EXAMPLE 4 Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of P(I, -1,0), Q(2, I, -1), andR(-I,I,2).
Solution Since PQ X PR is perpendicular to the plane, its direction n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane. Taking values from Examples 2 and 3, we have n=

IPQ X PRI

PQ X PR

6i + 6k 6v'2

I. I v'2' + v'2 k.

12.4

The Cross Product

685

For ease in calculating the cross product using detenninants, we usually write vectors in the fonn v = VI i + v2j + V3k rather than as ordered triples v = (VI, V2, V3).

Torque
When we turn a bolt by applying a force F to a wrench (Figure 12.32), we produce a torque that causes the bolt to rotate. The torque vector points in the direction of the axis of the bolt according to the right-hand rule (so the rotation is counterclockwise when viewed from the tip of the vector). The magnitude of the torque depends on how far out on the wrench the force is applied and on how much of the force is perpendicular to the wrench at the point of application. The number we use to measure the torque's magnitude is the product of the length of the lever ann r and the scalar component of F perpendicular to r. In the notation of Figure 12.32,
Component of F perpendicular to r. Its length is IFI sin

Magnitude of torque vector =

Ir II FI sin 8,

ii:----

or Ir X F I. If we let n be a unit vector along the axis of the bolt in the direction of the torque, then a complete description of the torque vector is r X F, or Torque vector

(I r II FI sin 8) n.

FIGURE 12.32 The torque vector describes the tendency of the force F to drive the bolt forward.

Recall that we defined u X v to be 0 when u and v are parallel. This is consistent with the torque interpretation as well. Ifthe force F in Figure 12.32 is parallel to the wrench, meaning that we are trying to turn the bolt by pushing or pulling along the line of the wrench's handle, the torque produced is zero.

EXAMPLE 5
3 ft bar

The magnitude of the torque generated by force F at the pivot point P in

Figure 12.33 is

IPQ
20lb magnitude force F

FI

IPQIIFI sin 70
(3)(20)(0.94) 56.4 ft-Ib.

FIGURE 12.33

The magnitude of the

In this example the torque vector is pointing out of the page toward you.

torque exerted by F at P is about 56.4 ft-lb (Example 5). The bar rotates counterclockwise around P.

Triple Scalar or Box Product

The product (u X v) w is called the triple scalar product ofu, v, and w (in that order). As you can see from the fonnula

I(u

X v) w I =

Iu

X v II w II cos 81,

the absolute value of this product is the volume of the parallelepiped (parallelogram-sided box) determined by u, v, and w (Figure 12.34). The number Iu X vi is the area of the base
uXv

Area of base --=Iuxvl

u

Volume = area of base . height = lu X vi IwlIcos III = I(u X v) wi

FIGURE 12.34 The number I(u Xv) w I is the volume of a parallelepiped.

686

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

parallelogram. The number Iw II cos () I is the parallelepiped's height. Because of this geometry, (u X v), w is also called the hox product ofu, v, and w. By treating the planes of v and w and of w and u as the base planes of the parallelepiped detennined by u, v, and w, we see that (u X v) w = (v X w) u = (w X u) v. Since the dot product is commutative, we also have
1

The dot and cross may be interchaoged in a 1riple sca1ar product without altering its value.

(u X v)w = u'(v X w). The triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant: (u X v)w = [I:: ::Ii

J-w

Ul
Vl

U2
V2

U3
V3

Wl

W2

W3

Calculating the Triple Scalar Product as a Dcterminant

Ul U2 U3

(u

v) w

VI

V2

V3

EXAMPLE 6
v = -2i Solution

+ 3k,andw

Find the volume of the box (parallelepiped) determined by u = i + 2j - k, = 7j - 4k.

Using the rule for calculating determinants, we rmd

I 2 (uXv)w= - 2 0 o 7
The volume is I(u X v) wi = 23 units cubed.

-1 3 =-23. -4

Exercises 12.4
Cross Product Calculations
In Exercises 1-8, rmd the length and direction (when dermed) of

7. u = -8i - 2j - 4k,

v = 2i + 2j + k
v = i + j + 2k

uXvandvXu. 1. u=2i-2j -k, v=i-k

2. u = 2i + 3j, v = -i + j 3. u=2i-2j+4k,
S. u
6. u
= =

8. u = ti -

t j + k,

v=-i+j-2k

In Exercises 9-14, s1retch the coordinate axes and then include the vectors u, v, and u X vas vectors starting at the origin.

4.u=i+j-k, v=O
2i, v
=

9. u = i,

v= j v= j + k

10. u = i - k, 14. u = j + 2k,

v= j v= i

-3j
=

11. u = i - k,

12. u = 2i - j, v = i + 2j

i X j,

j Xk

13. u = i + j, v = i - j

12.4

The (ross Product

687

Triangles in Space In Exercises 15--18,

a. Find the area of the triangle detennined by the points P, Q,
andR.

e. (-u) X v

-(u X v)

d. (en)'v = u'(cv) = c(n'v) f. U'U = lul 2 g. (uXn)n=O

h. (uXv)'u=v'(uXv)

(aoynumbere) (aoynumbere)

e. c(n X v) = (en) X v = u X (cv)

b. Find a unit vector perpendicular to plane PQR.

15. P(1, -1,2),

Q(2,0, -I), R(O, 2, I)

16. P(I, I, I), 17. P(2, -2, I),

18. P( -2,2,0),

Q(2, 1,3), R(3, -I, I) Q(3, -1,2), R(3, -I, I)

Q(O, I, -I), R( -1,2, -2)

29. Given nonzero vectors u, v, and w, use dot product and cross product notatioo, as appropriate, to describe the followiog.
a. The vector projection of u onto v

Triple Scalar Products

1!l-22, verifY that (u X v) w = (v X w) u = (w X u) v and fmd the volume of the parallelepiped (box) determined by n, v, and w. u 19. 2i 20.i-j+k 21.2i+j 22.i+j-2k v 2j 2i+j-2k 2i-j+k -i - k w 2k -i + 2j - k i + 2k 2i+4j-2k
In Exercises

b. A vector orthognoal to u and v

c. A vector orthogonal to u X v and w

d. The volume of the parallelepiped detennined by u, v, and w

e. A vector orthogonal to u X v and u X w f. A vector oflength In I io the direction ofv

30. Compute (i X j) X j aod i X (j X j). What cao you cnoclude about the associativity of the cross product? 31. Let u, v, and w be vectors. Which of the followiog make sense,

and which do not? Give reasons for your answers. a. (uXv)'w

b. u X (v'w)

Theory and Examples

23. ParaI1el and perpendieular vecton I.et n = 5i - j + k, v = j - 5k,w = -15i + 3j - 3k. Whieh vectors, ifaoy, are (a) perpendicular? (b) Parallel? Give reasons for your aoswers. 24. Parallel and perpendieular vectors I.ct u = i + 2j - k, v = -i + j + k, w = i + k, r = -('/T/2)i - '/Tj + ('/T/2)k. Which vectors, if aoy, are <a) perpendicu1ar? (b) Parallel? Give

e. u X (v X w)
d. u'(v'w) 32. Cross products of three veetors Show that except in degenerate cases, (u X v) X w lies in the plane of u and v, whereas n X (v X w) lies in the plane ofv and w. What are the degener-

ate cases?
33. Cancellation in cross products If u X v = u X w and u =F 0, then does v = w? Give reasons for your answer. 34. Double eaneellalion If n # 0 aod if u X v = u X w aod u v = U lV, then does v = w? Give reasons for your answer.

reasons for your answers.

In Exercises 25 and 26, fmd the magoitude of the torque exerted by F on the bolt atP if IPQI = 8io. aod IFI = 301b. Answer in foot-

pounds.

25.

26.

Area of a Parallelogram Find the areas of the parallelograms whose vertices are given in Exercises 35--40. 35. A(1,O),
B(O, I),

C( -1,0),

D(O, -I)

p p

36. A(O, 0),

B(7,3), B(2,0),

C(9, 8), C(7, I),

D(2,5) D(4,3)
D( -4,5)

37. A( -1,2), 38. A( -6,0), 39. A(O, 0, 0), 40. A(1, 0, -I),
true? Give reasons for your answers.

27. Which of the following are always true, and which are not always a. Iu I

B(l, -4),

C(3, I),

B(3, 2, 4),
B(l, 7, 2),

C(5, 1,4),

D(2, -1,0)
D(O, 3, 2)

= y;;-:-;;-

C(2,4, -I),

h. u'n = lui

e.uXO=OXn=O
d. u X (-n)
=

Area of a Triangle Find the areas of the triangles whose vertices are given in Exercises
41-47. 41. A(O, 0),
B( -2,3),

e.uXv=vXu
f. u X (v + w) = u X v + u X w
g. (uXv)'v=O

C(3, I) C(2, I) C(6, -2)

C( -2,4)
C(O,O,-I)

42. A( -I, -I), 43. A( -5,3),

44. A( -6,0),

B(3,3),
B(I, -2),

h. (uXv)'w=u'(vXw) 28. Which of the following are always true, and whieh are not always
true? Give reasons for your answers.

B(IO, -5),
B(0,2,0),
B(O, I, I),

45. A(I,O,O),

46. A(O, 0, 0),

47. A(I, -I, I),

B( -I, I, -I),

a.uv=vn

b.uXv=-(vXu)

C(3, 0, 3) C(I,O, -I)

688

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

50. Triangle area Find a coacise formula for the area of a triangle in the xy-plane with vertices (a" a2), (b" IJ,.), and (q, e2).

48. Find the volume of a parallelepiped if four of its eight vertices are A(O, 0, 0), B(l, 2, 0), C(O, -3,2), and D(3, -4, 5). 49. TrilUlgie area Find a formula for the area of the triangle in the xy-plane with vertices at (0,0), (ai, a2), and (b" b2). Explain

your work.

12.5

Lines and Planes in Space

This section shows how to use scalar and vector products to write equations for lines, line segments, and planes in space. We will use these representations throughout the rest of the book.

Lines and Line Segments in Space

In the plane, a line is detennined by a point and a number giving the slope of the line. In space a line is detennined by a point and a veclor giving the direction of the line. Suppose that L is a line in space passing through a point Po(xo, Yo, zo) paralle.!10 a vector v = Vii + v2j + V3k. Then !:...is the set of all points P(x, y, z) for which PoP is parallel to v (Figure 12.35). Thus, PoP = tv for some scalar parameter I. The value of I depends on the location of the point P along the line, and the domain of I is (- 00, 00). The expanded form of the equation P-;P = tv is

o
y

(x - xo)i
FIGURE 12.35 A point P lies on L through Po parallel to v if and ooly if P-;P is a scalar multiple ofv.

+ (y

- yoH

(z - zo)k = t(vli

+ V2j + V3k),
(1)

which can be rewritten as

xi

+ yj + zk

= xoi

+ yoj + zok + I(vli + v2j + V3k).

!fr(l) is the position vector ofa pointP(x,y, z) on the line and ro is the position vector of the point Po(XO,YO, zo), then Equation (1) gives the following vector form for the equation of a line in space. Vector Equation for a Line

A vector equation for the line L through Po(Xo, Yo, xo) parallel to v is
r(l) = ro

+ tv,

-00 < 1< 00,

(2)

where r is the position vector of a point P(x, y, z) on L and ro is the position vector of Po(xo, Yo, zo).

Equating the corresponding components of the two sides of Equation (1) gives three scalar equations involving the parameter I:

X=Xo+tvt,

y=YO+IV2,

These equations give us the standard parametrization of the line for the parameter interval -00<1<00.

Parametric Equations for a Une

The standard parametrization of the line through Po(xo, Yo, xo) paraDel to v = Vii + V2j + v3kis

Xo

+ lVI, y

Yo

+ IV2, Z = Zo + IV3, -

00 < I < 00

(3)

12.5

Lines and Planes in Space

689

v = 2i
V O(-2, 0, 4)
4 _

EXAMPLE 1 Find parametric equations for the line through (-2,0,4) parallel to + 4j - 2k (Figure 12.36).

"\;1=0

Solution

With Po(XO,YO,zo) equal to (-2,0,4) and vii 2i + 4j - 2k, Equations (3) become

+ v2j + V3k

equal to

NO, 4, 2)
G

o
2
4

=1

x = -2

+ 21,

41,

z = 4 - 21.

EXAMPLE 2
Q(1, -1,4).
Solution

Find parametric equations for the line through P( -3,2, -3) and

v=2i+4j-2k

The vector

Pg
FIGURE 12.36 Selected points and parameter values on the line in Example 1. The arrows show the direction of increasing t.

= =

(I - (-3))i + (-I - 2)j + (4 - (-3k 4i - 3j + 7k

is parallel to the line, and Equations (3) with (xo, Yo, zo) = (-3,2, -3) give

x = -3 x = ]

+ 41, + 41,

y = 2 - 31,
y = -] - 31,

z = -3 z = 4

+ 71. + 71.

We could have chosen Q( I, -I, 4) as the ''base point" and written

These equations serve as well as the first; they simply place you at a different point on the line for a given value of I. Notice that parametrizations are not unique. Not ouly can the ''base poinf' change, but so can the parameter. The equations x = -3 + 41 3 ,y = 2 - 31 3,andz = -3 + 71 3 also parametrize the line in Example 2. To parametrize a line segment joining two points, we first parametrize the line through the points. We then find the I-values for the endpoints and restrict I to lie in the closed interval bounded by these values. The line equations together with this added restriction parametrize the segment.
Q(I,-1,4)

EXAMPLE 3 Parametrize the line segment joining the points P( -3,2, -3) and Q(1, -1,4) (Figure 12.37).
Solution We begin with equations for the line through P and Q, taking them, in this case, from Example 2:

x = -3

+ 41,

y=2-31,

-3

+ 71.

P(-3, 2, -3)

We observe that the point

(x,y,z) = (-3

+ 41,2 - 31, -3 + 71)

FIGURE 12.37 Example 3 derives a parametrization of line segmentPQ. The arrow shows the direction of increasing t.

on the line passes through P( -3,2, -3) at I = 0 and Q(I, -1,4) at I = \. We add the restriction 0 :5 I :5 ] to parametrize the segment:

x = -3

+ 41,

y=2-31,

-3 + 71,

0:51:5\.

The vector fonn (Equation (2 for a line in space is more revealing if we think of a line as the path of a particle starting at position Po(xo, Yo, zo) and moving in the direction ofvec!or v. Rewriting Equation (2), we have r(l) = ro
= ro

Iv
(4)

+ Ilvl

Initial position

Time

! \ "'Speed

Direction

690

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

In other words, the position of the particle at time I is its initial position plus its distance moved (speed X time) in the direction vi Ivl of its straight-line motion.

EXAMPLE 4 A helicopter is to fly directly from a helipad at the origin in the direction of the point (I, I, I) at a speed of 60 ft/sec. What is the position of the helicopter after 10 sec?
Solution We place the origin at the starting position (helipad) of the helicopter. Then the unit vector

u = _I_i + _I_j + _I_k v3 v3 v3 gives the flight direction of the helicopter. From Equation (4), the position of the helicopter at any time I is r(l) = ro + I(speed)u = 0 + 1(60)(_I_ i + _I_j + _I_ k ) v3 v3 v3 = 20v3I(i + j + k). When I = 10 sec, r(lO) = 200v3 (i + j + k) = (200v3, 200v3, 200v3). After 10 sec of flight from the origin toward (I, I, I), the helicopter is located at the point (200v3, 200v3, 200v3) in space. It has traveled a distance of (60 ft/secHIO sec) = _ 600 ft, which is the length of the vector r(IO).

The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space

tor v, we find the absolute value of the scalar component of

To f'md the distance from a point S to a line that passes thmugJI a point P parallel to a vecPS in the direction of a vector normal to the line (Figure 12.38). In the n.Q1ation of the figure, the absolute value of the IPS X vi scalar component is IPSI sinO, which is Ivl

FIGURE 12.38 The distance from S to the line through P parallel to v is IPS I sin 8, where 8 is the angle between

Distance from a Point S to a Line Through P Parallel to v

d=

IPS X vi Ivl

(5)

PSandv.

EXAMPLE 5

Find the distance from the point S(I, 1,5) to the line

L:

x = 1

+ I,

y = 3 - I,

z = 21.

Solution We see from the equations for L that L passes thmugh P(I, 3, 0) parallel to v=i-j+2k.With

PS =

(I - I)i + (I - 3)j + (5 - O)k = -2j + 5k

12.5

Lines and Planes in Space

6g1

omd
I PS X v = 0 1
Equation (5) gives

J
-2
-1

k 5 = i 2

+ 5j + 2)[,

IPS X vi Ivl

v'1 + 25 + 4 v'1 + 1 + 4

v':iO v'6

Vs

1 -

An Equation for a Plane in Space

.....,M

FIGURE 12.39 The standard equation for a plane in space is defined in terms of. vector normal to the plane: A point Plies in the plane tbrough Po normal to a if and only ifa' P-;P - o.

A plane in space is determined by knowUlg a point on the plane and its "tilf' or orientation. This "tilf' is defmcd by specifying a vector that is perpendicular or normal to the plane. Suppose that plane M passes through a point Po(xo,Yo, zo) and is normal to the vector a = AI + Bj + CIL Then M is the set of all p(x, y, z) for which PoP is orthogonal to a (Figure 12.39). Thus, the dot product n' PoP = o. This equation is equivalent to
(AI

+ BJ + Ck)'[(x -

xo)1

+ (y

- Yo)J

+ (z - zo)kj

or

A(x - Xo)

+ B(y -

Yo)

+ C(z -

Zo)

o.

Equation for a Plane The plane throughPo(XO,)'O, zo) normsl to n = Ai Vector eqnation: Componeat equation: Component equation IimpIified:

+ Bj + Ckhas
0

n'PoP = 0 A(x - Xo) + B(y - Yo) + C(z - zo) Ax + By + Cz = D, where D - Axo + l1.Yo + Czo

EXAMPLE 6

n=5i+2j-k.
Solution

Find an equation for the plane through P o(- 3, 0, 7) perpendicular to

The component equation is

5(x - (-3))

+ 2(y 15

0)

+ (-I)(z
=

- 7)

O.

Simplifying, we obtain 5x

+ 2y - z + 7
5x

+ 2y -

z = -22.

Notice in Example 6 how the components of a = 51 + 2J - k. became the coefficients of x, y, and z in the equation 5x + 2y - z = -22. The vector a = AI + BJ + Ck is normal to the plane Ax + By + Cz = D.

692

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

EXAMPLE 7

Find an equation for the plane throughA(O, 0,1), B(2, 0, 0), and qo, 3, 0).

SoLution We find a vector normal to the plane and use it with one of the points (it does not matter which) to write an equation for the plane. The cross product
---"

AB X AC =

k -1 = 3i

2j

6k

-1

is normal to the plane. We substitute the components of this vector and the coordinates of A(O, 0, 1) into the component form of the equation to obtain

3(x - 0)

+ 2(y - 0) + 6(z - 1) = 3x + 2y + 6z = 6.

Lines of Intersection
Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or 01 = k02 for some scalar k. Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.

EXAMPLE 8 Find a vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes 3x - 6y - 2z = 15 and 2x + y - 2z = 5.
SoLution The line of intersection of two planes is perpendicular to both planes' normal vectors 01 and 02 (Figure 12.40) and therefore parallel to 01 X 02. Turning this around, 01 X 02 is a vector parallel to the planes' line of intersection. In our case,

01

02 =

2
Any nonzero scalar multiple of 01 X

j -6 1
02

k -2 = 14i -2

2j

15k.

will do as well.

FIGURE 12.40 How the line of intersection of two planes is related to the planes' normal vectors (Example 8).

EXAMPLE 9 Find parametric equations for the line m which the planes 3x - 6y - 2z = 15 and 2x + y - 2z = 5 intersect.
SoLution We fmd a vector parallel to the line and a point on the line and use Equations (3). Example 8 identifies v = 14i + 2j + 15k as a vector parallel to the line. To find a point on the line, we can take any point common to the two planes. Substituting z = in the plane equations and solving for x andy simultaneously identifies one of these points as (3, -1,0). The line is

x = 3

14t,

y = -1

+ 2t,

z = 1St.

The choice z = is arbitrary and we could have chosen z = 1 or z = -1 just as well. Or we could have let x = and solved for y and z. The different choices would simply give _ different parametrizations of the same line.

Sometimes we want to know where a line and a plane intersect. For example, if we are looking at a flat plate and a line segment passes through it, we may be interested in knowing what portion of the line segment is hidden from our view by the plate. This application is used in computer graphics (Exercise 74).

12.5

Lines and Planes in Space

693

EXAMPLE 10

Find the point where the line

8 x=3+ 21,
intersects the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6. Solution The point

y = -21,

z = 1

+1

+ 21, -21, 1 + I) lies in the plane if its coordinates satisfy the equation of the plane, that is, if + 21) + 2(-21) + 6(1 + I) = 6 8+61-41+6+61=6 81 = -8 1 = -1. The point of intersection is
(x,y,z)lt=-1 =

2,2,1 - 1) = (f,2,O).

The Distance from a Point to a Plane

If P is a point on a plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S to the plane is the length of the vector projection of pS onto n. That is, the distance fromS to the plane is

d =

Ips 1:11

(6)

where n = Ai + Bj + Ck is normal to the plane.

EXAMPLE 11

Find the distance fromS(I, 1, 3) to the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6.

Solution We find a point P in the plane and calculate the length of the vector projection of PS onto a vector n norma! to the plane (Figure 12.41). The coefficients in the equation 3x+2y+6z=6give n=3i+2j+6k.
z

3x + 2y + 6:z: = 6

I
,/

0=31+2j+61<
____ _

S(I,

(0,0, 1)
/ /

0)1/

Distance from S to the plane

y

/
x

'(2,0,0)

FIGURE 12.41 The distance from Sio the plane is the length of the vector projection of liS onto n (Example II).

694

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

The points on the plane easiest to find from the plane's equation are the intercepts. If we take P to be the y-intercept (0, 3, 0), then

= =

(1 - O)i
i - 2j

(1 - 3)j

+ (3 - O)k

+ 3k,

101 =V(3)2 + (2? + (6)2 =v'49 =7.

The distance from S to the plane is

d=lnI:11
1

length ofprojn

1_ 1 i + lil
7 7 7

(i - 2j

+ 3k)'
=

(t + t
i

+ k)

Ps

11 . 7

Angles Between Planes

The angle between two intersecting planes is defined to be the acute angle between their normal vectors (Figure 12.42). Find the angle between the planes 3x - 6y - 2z EXAMPLE 12 2x + y - 2z = 5. Solution The vectors
01

= 15 and

= 3i - 6j - 2k,

02 =

2i

+j

- 2k

are normals to the planes. The angle between them is

FIGURE 12.42 The angle between two planes is obtained from the angle between their normals.
() = =

COS-I
cos- I

(2 1)
4
About 79 deg

1.38 radians.

Exercises 12.5
Lines and Line Segments
Find parametric equations for the lines in Exercises 1- 12. 9. The line through (0, -7,0) perpendicular to the plane x + 2y + 2z = 13 10. The line through (2, 3, 0) perpendicular to the vectors u = i 2j + 3k and v = 3i + 4j + 5k 11. The x-axis 12. The z-axis

1. The line through the point P(3, -4, - 1) parallel to the vector i +j +k
2. The line through P(1, 2, - 1) and Q( -I, 0, I) 3. The line through P( -2,0,3) and Q(3, 5, -2) 4. The line through P(I, 2, 0) and Q(1, I, - 1) 5. The line through the origin parallel to the vector 2j

6. The line through the point (3, -2, 1) parallel to the line x = I + 2/, y = 2 - I, z = 31 7. The line through (1, 1, 1) parallel to the z-axis 8. The line through 3x + 7y - 5z = 21 (2,4,5) perpendicular to the plane

Find parametrizations for the line segments joining the points in Exercises 13- 20. Draw coordinate axes and sketch each segment, indicating the direction of increasing 1 for your parametrization.

13. (0, 0, 0), 15. (1, 0, 0), 19. (2, 0, 2),

(1, 1,3/2) (1, 1,0) (0,2,0)

14. (0, 0, 0), 16. (1, 1,0), 18. (0, 2, 0),

20. (1,0, - 1),

(1,0,0) (1, I, 1) (3,0,0) (0,3,0)

17. (0,1,1), (0,-1,1)

12.5

Lines and Planes in Space

695

Planes Find equations for the planes in Exercises 21-26.

21. The plane through Po( 0, 2, - I) normal to n = 3i - 2j - k 22. The plane through (I, -1,3) parallel to the plane

Angles Find the aogles between the planes in Exercises 47 and 48.

47. x + Y = I, 2x + y - 2z = 2 48. 5x + y-z = 10, x -2y + 3z=-1

3x+y+z=7
23. The plane through (I, I, -I), (2, 0, 2), and (0, -2, I) 24. The plane through (2, 4, 5), (I, 5, 7), and (-1,6,8) 25. The plane through Po(2, 4, 5) perpendicular to the line

D Use a calculator to fmd the acute angles between the planes in Exercises 49-52 to the nearest hundredth of a radian.

49.2x+2y+2z=3,

2x-2y-z=5

SO. x

+y +Z
+
3z

= I,

+ t,

+ 31,

4t

51. 2x + 2y - z = 3,

z = (thexy-plane) x + 2y + z = 2

52. 4y

= -12,

3x+ 2y+ 6z

=6

26. The plane through A(I, -2, I) perpendicular to the vector from the origin to A 27. Find the point of intersection of the lines x = 21 + I, y = 31 + 2, z = 4t + 3, and x = + 2, y = 2s + 4, z = -48 - I, and then fmd the plane detennined by these lines. 28. Find the point of intersectino of the lines x = I, Y = -I + 2, z = 1 + I, and x = 2s + 2, y = + 3, Z = 5. + 6, and then fmd the plane determined by these lines.
In Exercises 29 and 30, fmd the plane detennined by the intersecting

Intersecting Lines and Planes

In Exercises 53-56, fmd the point in which the line meets the plane.

53.x=I-I,

y=31,

z=I+I;

54. x = 2, Y = 3

21, z = -2 - 21;

2x-y+3z=6 6x + 3y - 4z = -12

55.x=I+21, y=I+5t, z=31; x+y+z=2 56. x = -1 + 31, y = -2, z = 5t; 2x - 3z = 7

Find parametrizations for the lines in which the planes in Exercises 57-{;0 intersect.

lines.
29. Ll:x
= =

-1

+ t, y

= =

L2: x

1 - 4s, Y

+ t, 1 + ls,
2
Z

Z =

1 - t;
=

-00

< t<

00

57. x + Y + z = I, x + Y = 2 58.3x-6y-2z=3, 2x+y-2z=2

00

2 - 2s;

-00

30. LI: x = I,

Y = 3 - 31,

= -2 - I;

-00

<s< < 1 < 00

< s<

59. x - 2y

+ 4z = 2,

+ y - 2z = 5

60. 5x-2y= 11,

4y-5z= -17

L2: x = 1 + s, Y = 4 +

S,

z = -1 + s;

-00

00

31. Find a plane throughPo(2, I, -I) and perpendicular to the line of inletsection of the planes 2x + y - Z = 3, x + 2y + Z = 2. 32. Find a plane through the points PI(I, 2, 3), P2(3, 2, I) and petpendicular to the plane 4x - y + 2z = 7.

Given two lines in space, either they are parallel, or they inletseet, or they are skew (imagine, for example, the flight paths of two planes in the sky). Exercises 61 and 62 each give three lines. In each exercise, determine whether the lines, tsken two at a time, are parallel, intersect, or are skew. If they intersect, find the point of intersectino.
61. LI: x = 3

+ 21,

y = -I

+ 41,
T, Z =

z = 2 - I;

-00 -00
-00

< 1<

00

Distances
In Exercises 33-38, find the distance from the point to the line.

L2:x= I + 4.,y= I + 2s,z= -3 +48; L3: x

=

3 + 2r, y

2+

-2 + 2r;

33. (0,0,12); 34. (0,0,0); 35. (2, 1,3); 36. (2,1,-1);

x = 4t,

Y = -21,

= 21 z = -3 - 5t z = 3

x = 5
x = 2

+ 31, y + 21, y

= 5 = I

+ 4t, + 6t,

62. LI: x = I + 21, y = -I - I, z = 31; -00 L2:x=2-s, y=3s, z=l+s; -oo<s<oo L3: x = 5 + 2r, y = 1 T,
Z

<. < 00 < r < 00 < 1 < 00

< r<
00

= 8 + 3r;

-00

x=21,
x = 10

y= I +2t,

z=21 z=-5+31
z = 4t

37.(3,-1,4);
38. (-1,4,3);

x=4-1,

y=3+2t,
y = -3,

41,

In Exercises 39-44, find the distance from the point to the plane.

Theory and Examples 63. Use Equations (3) to generate a pararoe1rizatioo of the line through P(2, -4,7) parallel to VI = 2i - j + 3k. Then generate another pararoe1rizatioo of the line using the point P2( -2, -2, I) and the vector V2 = -i + (I/2)j - (3/2)k.
64. Use the coroponent form to generate an equation for the plane through P I (4, I, 5) normal to nl = i - 2j + k. Then generate another equatioo for the same plane using the point P2(3, -2, 0) and the normal vector.2 = + 2 Vzj - \12k.

39. (2, -3,4), 40. (0,0,0), 41. (0, I, I), 42. (2,2,3), 43. (0, -1,0), 44. (1,0, -I),

+ 2y + 2z = 13 3x + 2y + 6z = 6 4y + 3z = -12 2x + y + 2z = 4 2x + y + 2z = 4 -4x + y + z = 4
x

Yzi

65. Find the points in which the line x = I

+ 21, y = -I - I, z = 31 meets the coordinste planes. Describe the reasoning behind your answer.

45. Find the distance from the plane x x + 2y + 6z = 10.

+ 2y + 6z

= I to the plane

66. Find equations for the line in the plane z = 3 thst mskes an angle of'IT/6rad with i and an aogle of'IT/3 rad withj. Describe the reasooing behind your answer. 67. Is the line x = I - 2t, Y = 2 + 5t, z = -31 parallel to the plane 2x + y - z = 8? Give reasons for your answer.

46. Fiod the distance from the line x = 2 + I, y = I z = -(1/2) - (I/2)ttotheplanex + 2y + 6z = 10.

I,

696

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

b. Test the formulas obtained for y and z in part (a) by investigatiog their behavior at XI = and XI = Xo and by seeing what happeos as xo ..... 00. What do you find?

68. How can you tell when two planes Alx + Bly + Clz = DI and A,x + B,y + C'z = D, are parallel? Perpeodicular? Give reasons for your answer. 69. Find two differeot planes whose intersectioo is the line x = 1 + t,y = 2 - t, Z = 3 + 2t. Write equations for each plane in the form Ax + By + Cz = D. 70. Find a plane through the origin that is perpendicular to the plane M: 2x + 3y + z = 12 in a right angle. How do you know that your plane is perpeodicular to M? 71. The graph of (x/a) + (y/b) + (z/c) = 1 is a plane for any nonzero numbers a, h, and c. Which planes have an equation of this form? 72. Suppose LI and L, are disjoint (noointersecting) nooparallellines. Is it possible for a nonzero vector to be perpeodicu1ar to both LI and L,.? Give reasons for your answer. 73. Perspective in computer graphics In computer graphics and perspective drawing, we need to represent oi!jects seen by the eye in space as images on a two-dimensional plane. Suppose that the eye is at E(xo, 0, 0) as sbown bere and that we want to represent a point PI(XI.YI. Zl) as a point on the yz-plane. We do this by projecling PI onto the plane with a ray from E. The point PI will be portrayed as the point p(0, y, z). The problem for us as graphics designers is to f'mdy andz givenE andP I .
L

z
P(O,y, z)

Write a vector equation that holds between BP and BPI' Use the equation to expressy andz in terms OfXO,Xl,YI. andzi.

74. Hidden lines in computer graphics Here is another typical problem in computer graphics. Your eye is at (4, 0, 0). You are looking at a triangular plate whose vertices are at (1,0, 1), (I, 1,0), and ( -2, 2, 2). The line segment from (1, 0, 0) to (0, 2, 2) passes through the plate. What portioo of the line segmeot is hiddeo from your view by the plate? (This is an exercise in f'mding intersections of lines and planes.)

12.6

Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Up to now, we have studied two special types of surfaces: spheres and planes. In this section, we extend our inventory to include a variety of cylinders and quadric surfaces. Quadric surfaces are surfaces defmed by second-degree equations in x, y, and z. Spheres are quadric surfaces, but there are others of equal interest which will be needed in Chapters 14-16.

Cylinders
z
Generating curve
(in lbe yz-plane)

A cylinder is a surface that is generated by moving a straight line along a given planar curve while holding the line parallel to a given fixed line. The curve is called a generating curve for the cylinder (Figure 12.43). In solid geometry, where cylinder means circular cylinder, the generating curves are circles, but now we allow generating curves of any kind. The cylinder in our first example is generated by a parabola

EXAMPLE 1 Find an equation for the cylinder made by the lines parallel to the z-axis that pass through the parabola y = x 2 , Z = 0 (Figure 12.44).
The point Po(xo, xo2, 0) lies on the parabola y = x' in the xy-piane. Then, for Solution any value of z, the point Q(xo, x02, z) lies on the cylinder because it lies on the line x = xo,y = xo' through Po parallel to the z-axis. Conversely, any point Q(xo,xo2,z) whose y-coordinate is the square of its x-coordinate lies on the cylinder because it lies on the line x = Xo, Y = xo' through Po parallel to the z-axis (Figure 12.44). Regardless of the value of z, therefore, the points on the surface are the points whose coordinates satisfY the equation y = x 2 This makes y = x 2 an equation for the cylinder. Because of this, we call the cylinder ''the cylinder y = x 2 ."

lines through

generating curve parallel to x-axis

FIGURE 12.43 A cylinder and generatiog

curve.

12.6

Cylinder.; and Quadric Surfaces

6g7

As Example 1 suggests, any curve f(x,y) = c in the xy-p1ane defines a cylinder paraIle! to the z-axis whose equation is also f(x,y) = c. For instance, the equation x 2 + y2 = 1 def'mcs the circular cylinder made by the lines parallel to the z-axis that pass through the circle x 2 + y2 = 1 in the xy-plane. In a similar way. any curve g(x, z) = c in the xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to they-axis wh08C space equation is also g(x,z) = c. Any curve h(y,z) = c def'mes a cylinder parallel to the x-axis whose space equation is also hey, z) = c. The axis of a cylinder need not be parallel to a coordinate axis,

Quadric Surfaces
A quadric I.rface is the graph in space of a second-degree equation in x, y, and z. We fucus on the special equation
..(xl

+Byl

+ Cz1 + Dz - E,

FIGURE 12.44 Everypointofthe cylinder in Example 1 has coordinates of the form (ZO. xOl, z). We call it "the cylinder y _ xl."

where A, B, C, D, and E are oonstmJ.ts. The bosic quadric smfaces are ellipsoids, paraboloids, elliptical cones, and hyperboloid.. Spheres are special cases of ellipsoids. We
present a few examples illustrating how to sketch a quadric surface, and then give
II. S1DD-

mmy table of graphs of the basic types.

EXAMPLE 2

The ellipsoid

(Figure 12.45) cuts the coonlinatc axes at ( a, O. 0). (0. b, 0), and (0, 0, c). It lics within the rectangular box defmcd by the inequalities Ix I :S a, Iy I :S h. and Iz I :s c. The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate planes because each variable in the defmmg equation is squared.

Elliptical cross-section in the pIane z - lo

,
/ c
/' ,, ,,
: f ..

,
,,
I I --

,
.
r

. r1 " , " >t-:.......;..--;,,:',,1""..........

1 _

, I ..'

, ,,

''f

FIGURE 12.45 The ellipsoid

in Example 2 has elliptical Cf'OfIS-sections in each of the three coordinate planes.

The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses. For example,

when

o.

698

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

The curve cut from the surface by the plane z

= zo, IZo I < c, is the ellipse

y2
2 2

x2
----::-----=----:2,2

a (1 - (zoic) )

b (1 - (zoic) )

= 1.

If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of revolu_ tion. If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.

EXAMPLE 3

The hyperbolic paraboloid

---

y2
b

x2
a2

c'

c>

has symmetry with respect to the planes x = 0 and y = 0 (Figure 12.46). The crosssections in these planes are

0:

the parabola z = c2 y2 . b the parabola z = - c2 x 2

a

(1)

y = 0:

(2)

In the plane x = 0, the parabola opens upward from the origin. The parabola in the plane y = 0 opens downward. If we cut the surface by a plane z = Zo > 0, the cross-section is a hyperbola,
---

y2 b2

x2

Zo
C'

a2

with its focal axis parallel to the y-axis and its vertices on the parabola in Equation (1). If Zo is negative, the focal axis is parallel to the x-axis and the vertices lie on the parabola in Equation (2).

Part of the hyperbola y 2 - X 2 = 1 b a

/
"\-----,.. y
/ 22

The parabola z = -

/'

Part of the hyperbola \

in the xzplane

x2

/ ' in the plane z = -c

- y2 = 1 b

FIGURE 12.46 The hyperbolic paraboloid (y2/b 2) - (x 2/a 2) = z/c, c > o. The cross-sections in planes perpendicular to the z-axis above and below the xy-plane are hyperbolas. The cross-sections in planes perpendicular to the other axes are parabolas.

Near the origin, the surface is shaped like a saddle or mountain pass. To a person traveling along the surface in the yz-plane the origin looks like a minimum. To a person traveling the xz-plane the origin looks like a maximum. Such a point is called a saddle point of a surface. We will say more about saddle points in Section 14.7. _ Table 12.1 shows graphs of the six basic types of quadric surfaces. Each surface shown is symmetric with respect to the z-axis, but other coordinate axes can serve as well (with appropriate changes to the equation).

12.6

Cylinder.; and Quadric Surfaces

699

TABLE 12.1 Graphs of Quadric Surfaces

,
Tho PEIobolu _

,
ill Ibo ",,"pImo
" ......

, , , ,,

, -T'----

,
'Ibe p,nbolu _
;"'1110 1f'1Ilmo

____

ELLIPSOID ELLIPTICAL PARABOLOID

)f--r-"

,/

ELLIPTICAL CONE

HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET

'Ibe e1Hpee -

.'- cV'i f

. .,.

+- _1

.
HYPERBOLOID OF 1WO SHEETS HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID

%
C'

.>0

700

Chapter 12: Vector.; and the Geometry of Space

Exercises 12.6
Matchtng Equations with Surfaces In Exercises 1-12, match the equation with the surface it defines.
Also, identify each surface by type (paraboloid, ellipsoid, etc.) The swfaces arc labeled (a)-{I).
k. L

1. x:1 +y:1 + 4z2 = 10 3. 9y2 +z:1 = 16 5. x _ y 2_ z 2 7.x2 +2z 2 _ S 9. X=z2_ y :1 11. x:1 + 4z:1 = y2
L

2.z:1+4y 2_4x:1=4 4.y:1+ z 2=X 2 6.x _ _ 2_ 2 z y 8.z 2 +x:1- y 2 _ 1 10. z = _4.1: 2 _ y2

12. 9x:1

,
Drawtng

+ 4y:1 + 2z2

= 36

Sketch the surfaces in Exercises 13-44.

b.

CYUNDERS
13. X2 +y2=4 15. 14.z=y2-1 16. 4x 2 + y2 _ 36 18. 4x:1 20. 9;t2

ELUPSOIDS
17. 9;t2 + y2 + z2 = 9 19. 4x 2 + 9y2 + _ 36

+ 4y:1 + z:1 = 16 + 4y2 + 36z2 _ 36

PARABOLOIDS AND CONES

,.

d.

21. z=x:1+4y:1 23. 25. X:1+ y 2=z:1

:n.z=S-:x2 -y:1 24.y=I-:x 2 -z2 26. 4x:1 + = 9y2 28.y:1+ z 2_ x 2=1 30. (y'/4) - (.'/4) -

HYPERBOLOIDS
27.x:1+ y 2- z :1=1 29. z2_ X:1_ y 2= 1

z'

HYPERBOUC PARABOLOIDS

,
y

31. y2-:x:1 _ z

ASSORTED
33. z= 1 +y2_X:1 35. Y _ _ (x:1 + z2) 37. x 2 +y2_z2 _ 4 39. x 2 +z2 _ 1 41. z = _(X2 + y2) 43.4y 2+ z 2_4x:1=4 34. 4x:1 + 4y:1 = z2 36. 1&2 + 4y2 _ 1

..
L

40. 16y2 + 9z:1 _ 4x 2 42.y:1_ x 2_ z 2=1 44.x 2 +y:1=z

Theory and Examples 45. L Express the area.4. of the cross-section cut from. the ellipsoid

, ,
9

by the plane z - c as a function of c. (The area of an ellipse

J.

with semiaxesa andbis7rab.) b. Use slices perpendicular to the z-axis to fmd the volume of
the ellipsoid in part (a).
c. Now find the volume of the ellipsoid

-+-+- - 1. a:1 b2 c2
y

x2

y2

z:1

Does your formula give the volume of a sphere of radius a if a - b - c?

Chapter 12 46. The barrel shown here is shaped like an ellipsoid with equal pieces cut from the ends by planes perpendicular to the z-axis. The crosssections perpendicular to the z-axis are circular. The barrel is 2h units high. its midsection radius is R, and its end radii are both r. Find a formula for the barrel's volume. Then check two things. First, suppose the sides of the barrel are straightened to turn the barrel into a cylinder of radius R and height 2h. Does your formula give the cylinder's volume? Second, suppose r = 0 and h = R so the barrel is a sphere. Does your formula give the sphere's volume?

Questions to Guide Your Review

701

h. Express your answer in part (a) in terms of h and the areas Ao and Ah of the regions cut by the hyperboloid from the planes z = 0 andz = h. c. Show that the volume in part (a) is also given by the formula
V=

h "6 (Ao + 4Am + Ah ),

where Am is the area of the region cut by the hyperboloid from the plane z = h/2.

D Plot the surfaces in Exercises 49-52 over the indicated domains.

you can, rotate the surface into different viewing positions.
49. z = y2, 51. z = x 2 52. z = x 2

Viewing Surfaces

If

-2

2,
x x

-0.5 2,
3,
y
y y

2
y y

50. z = 1 - y2,
y

-2

-2
-3 3 3

2
3

+ y2, -3 + 2y2 over

x x x

a. -3 h. -1
47. Show that the volume ofthe segment cut from the paraboloid
x2 y2 z -2+ - = a b2 c

3, 1, 2,

-3

-2 -2
-1

c. -2 d. -2

2
1

2,

by the plane z = h equals half the segment's base times its altitude. 48. a. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the hyperboloid
x2 y2 z2 -2+ -2 - = 1 a b c2

COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS Use a CAS to plot the surfaces in Exercises 53-58. Identify the type of quadric surface from your graph.

53.

9 + 36
=

x2

y2

z2
=

1 - 25

54.

9 - 9
y2

x2

z2

1x2

y2

16

55. 5x 2

z2 - 3y2

56.
z2

16

1-

9 +z
z2 = 0

and the planes z = 0 and z = h, h

>

o.

57.

9 -

x2

16 + 2

y2

58. y -

V4 -

Chapter

Questions to Guide Your Review

10. What is the determinant formula for calculating the cross product of two vectors relative to the Cartesian i, j, k-coordinate system? Use it in an example. 11. How do you find equations for lines, line segments, and planes in space? Give examples. Can you express a line in space by a single equation? A plane? 12. How do you find the distance from a point to a line in space? From a point to a plane? Give examples. 13. What are box products? What significance do they have? How are they evaluated? Give an example. 14. How do you find equations for spheres in space? Give examples. 15. How do you find the intersection of two lines in space? A line and a plane? Two planes? Give examples. 16. What is a cylinder? Give examples of equations that define cylinders in Cartesian coordinates. 17. What are quadric surfaces? Give examples of different kinds of ellipsoids, paraboloids, cones, and hyperboloids (equations and sketches).

1. When do directed line segments in the plane represent the same vector? 2. How are vectors added and subtracted geometrically? Algebraically? 3. How do you find a vector's magnitude and direction? 4. If a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar, how is the result related to the original vector? What if the scalar is zero? Negative? 5. Define the dot product (scalar product) of two vectors. Which algebraic laws are satisfied by dot products? Give examples. When is the dot product of two vectors equal to zero? 6. What geometric interpretation does the dot product have? Give examples. 7. What is the vector projection of a vector u onto a vector v? Give an example of a useful application of a vector projection. 8. Define the cross product (vector product) of two vectors. Which algebraic laws are satisfied by cross products, and which are not? Give examples. When is the cross product of two vectors equal to zero? 9. What geometric or physical interpretations do cross products have? Give examples.

702

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Chapter

Practice Exercises
In Exercises 25 and 26, fmd (a) the area of the parallelogram determined by vectors u and v and (b) the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors u, v, and w.

Vedor Calculations in Two Dimensions

In Exercises 1-4, let u = (-3,4) and v = (2, -5). Find (a) the componeot form of the vector aod (b) its magnitude.

1.3u-4v 3. -2u

2.u+v 4. 5v

2S.u=i+j-k,

v=2i+j+k,

w=-i-2j+3k

26.u=i+j,

v=j,

w=i+j+k

In Exercises 5-8, fmd the component form of the vector.

Lines, Planes, and Distances

27. Suppose that n is DOnnai to a plane and that v is parallel to the plane. Describe how you would fmd a veetor n that is both perpendicular to v and parallel to the plane. 28. Find a veetor in the plane parallel to the line ax + by = c.
In Exercises 29 and 30, fmd the distance from the point to the line.

5. The veetor obtained by rotating (0, I) througb an angle of21f/3

radians
6. The unit vector that makes an angle of 1f/6 radian with the positivex-axis 7. The vector 2 units loog in the directioo 4i - j 8. The veetor 5 units loog in the directioo opposite to the directioo of(3/5)i + (4/5)j Express the vectors in Exercises 9-12 in terms of their lengtha aod directioos. 9. v2i + v2j 10. -i - j 11. Velocityveetorv = (-2sinl)i + (2cosI)jwheol = 1f/2.

29. (2,2,0); x

-t, Y

t,

Z =

-1
Z

+t
= I

30. (0,4, I); x = 2 + I, y = 2 + I,

31. Parametrize the line that passes througb the point (I, 2, 3) parallel to the vector v = - 3i + 7k. 32. Parametrize the line segment joining the points P(I, 2, 0) and

Q(I,3, -I).
In Esercises 33 and 34, fmd the distance from the point to the plane.

12. Velocity vector v = (etcost - etsint)i + (etsint + etcost)j wheol = In 2.

33. (6,0, -6), 34. (3,0, 10),

x - y = 4
2x

Vedor Calculations in Three Dimensions

Express the veetors in Exercises 13 and 14 in terms of their leogtha and directions. 13. 2i - 3j

3y

+Z

= 2

35. Find an equation for the plane that passes through the point (3, -2, 1) normal to the veetor n = 2i + j + k. 36. Find an equatioo for the plane that passes through the point (-1,6,0) perpendicular to the line x = -I + I,y = 6 - 21, Z = 31.
In Exercises 37 and 38, fmd an equatioo for the plane througb points

+ 6k

14. i

+ 2j - k

15. Find a vector 2 units long in the direction ofv = 4i - j + 4k. 16. Find a vector 5 units loog in the direction opposite to the directioo ofv = (3/5) i + (4/5)k.
In Esercises 17 and 18, fmd lvi, lui, V'u, U'v, v X u, u X v,

P,Q,andR.
37. P(i, -1,2), 38. P(i, 0, 0), Q(2, 1,3), R( -1,2, - 1)
Iv X u I, the angle between v and u, the scalar compooent of u in the direction afv, and the vector projection ofo onto v. 17. v = i + j u=2i+j-2k
In Exercises 19 and 20, fmd proj. u.

Q(O, 1,0), R(O, 0, I)

18. v = i + j + 2k u=-i-k

39. Find the points in which the line x = I + 21, y = -I - I, z = 3t meets the three coordinate planes. 40. Find the point in which the line througb the origin perpendicular to the plane 2x - Y - Z = 4 meets the plane 3x - 5y + 2z = 6. 41. Find the acute angle between the planes x = 7 and x + y = -3.

19. v=2i+j-k u=i+j-5k

20. u=i-2j

v2z

v=i+j+k

42. Find the acute angle betweeo the planes x + y = I and

y+z= 1.
In Exercises 21 and 22, draw coordinate axes and then sketch u, v, and

u X v as vectors at the origin. 21. u=i.,

43. Find pararne1ric equations for the line in which the planes x + 2y + Z = I and x - y + 2z = -8 intersect. 44. Show that the line in which the planes

v=i+j

22. u=i-j,

v=i+j

23. !flvl = 2, Iwl = 3,andthe angie between v andw is 1f/3,fmd Iv - 2wl 24. For what value or values of a will the vectors u = 2i + 4j - 5k and v = -4i - 8j + ak be parallel?

x+2y-2z=5

and

5x-2y-z=0

intersect is parallel to the line

x = -3 + 21, y = 31, z = I + 41.

Chapter 12
45. The planes 3x
L

Practice Exercises
I)J + zk) - 0

703

+ 6z = I and 2x + 2y - z = 3 intcncct in a Iinc.

L (21 - 3J + 3k)'
b. x - 3-t,

x + 2)1 + (y - 1) - 3z

Shaw that the planes are orthogonal.

y - -Ilt,

z - 2-3t

b. Find equatiOlli for the line of intersection.

e. (x

+ 2) + l1(y

046. Find an equation for the plane that pasSCll through the point (1,2, 3)paraIleltou - 2i + 3j + kandv - i - j + 2k.
47. Is v = 2i - 4j + k related in any !pCcial way to the plane 2x + Y = 5? Give reasons for your answer. 48. The equation.' P-;P = 0 represents through Po normal to D. What set docs the inequality D' PoP> 0 tcpICscn.t? 49. Find the distance from the point P(I, 4, 0) to the plane through A(O. o. 0). B(2. o. -1). "'" C(2. -1.0). 50. Find the distance from the point (2, 2, 3) to the plane 2x + 3y + 5z - O. 51. Find a vector parallel to the plane 2x - y - z - 4 and orthogonaltot+J+k. 51. Find a unit vector orthogonal to A in the plane of B and C if A - 2i - j + k,B - i+ 2j + k,andC - i + j - 2k.
53. Find a vector of magnitude 2 parallel to the line of intcncction of theplane8x + 2y +z - I = and x -y + 2z+ 7 = O.

d. (2i - 3j + 3k) X x + 2)i + (y - I)j + zk) = 0

e. (2i - j + 3k) X (-3i + k)x + 2)i + (y - I)j + zk) 6l. The puallelogram !hawn here has vertices at A(2, -1,4), B(I, 0, -I), C(I, 2, 3), andD. Find

D),
A(2,-l,4)

C(l.2, 3)

54. Find the point in which the line through the origin perpendicular totheplane2x - y - z = 4mcctsthep1mc3x - 5y +22' = 6.

y
B(l, 0. -1)

55. Find the point in which the line through p(3, 2, I) normal ttl the plane 2x - y + 2z = -2 meets the plane.
56. What angle doc! the line of intcncction of the planca 2x + Y - z = 0 and x + Y + 2z = 0 make with the positive

L the coordinates of D,
b. the cosine of the interior angle atB,

x-axis?
57. The line
L:

e. the vector projection of BA. onto iiC,

d. the area of the parallelogram,

x=3+2t,

y=2t,

z=t

c. an equatioo for the plane of the parallelogram.

f. the areas of the orthogonal projections of the panillelogram

in1eDcctll the plane x + 3y - z = -4 in a point P. Find the coonIin.atcs of P and find equations for the line in the plane through P perpendicular ttl L.

on the three coord.i.na.tJ; planes. 63. Distmte betweea lineI Find the distance bctwccn the line L, through the points .4(1,0,-1) and B(-I,I,O) and the line L2 through the points C(3, I, -I) andD(4, 5, -2). The distance is ttl be meuured along the line perpendicular In the two lines. FltBt fmd vector D perpendicular to both lines. Thm project AC onto D.
64. (Continuatio1l o/Exerci.!e 63.) Find the distance between the line through A(4, 0, 2) and B(2, 4, 1) and the line through C(t, 3, 2)

58. Shaw that for every real number k the plane

x - 2y+ z + 3 + k(2x - y- z + I) = 0

contains the line of intmscction of the planes x - 2y + z + 3 = 0 and 2x - y - z + I = O.

""'D(2. 2. 4).
Quadric SumCt!!s

59. Find an equation for the plane through A(-2,O, -3) and B(I, -2, I) that lies parallel to the line through

Identify and sketch the surfaces in Exercises 65-76.

65. x 2 + y2 + z2 = 4

C( -2. -13/'. 26/') ""'D(16/'. -13/'. 0). 60. Is the line x = 1 + 2t, y = -2 + 31, z = -5t related in any way to the plane -4x - 6y + 10z - 91 Give reasoos for your
61. Which of the following are equations for the plane through the points P(I, I, -I), Q(3, 0, 2), andR(-2, I, O)?

67.4x 2 +4y 2+ Z l=4 69. z = _(x 2 + y2) 71. X2 +y2=z2 73. X2 +y2_z2=4
75. yl_x2_zl= 1

66. x 2 + (y - 1)2 + z2 = I 68. 3fu:l + 91 2 + 4z2 = 36

70. Y = _(Xl

+ zZ)

""""'.

71. Xl+zZ=yl

74. 4yl+zZ-ob:l =4 76. z2 _x 2 _ y2 = I

704

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Chapter

Additional and Advanced Exercises

clockwise when we look toward the origin fromA. Find the velocity v of the point of the body that is at the position B(l, 3, 2).

1. Submarine hunting Two surface ships on maneuvers are trying to determine a submarine's course and speed to prepare for an aircraft intercept. As shown here, ship A is located at (4, 0, 0), whereas ship B is located at (0, 5, 0). All coordinates are given in thousands of feet. Ship A locates the submarine in the direction of the vector 2i + 3j - (I/3)k, and ship B locates it in the direction of the vector 18i - 6j - k. Four minutes ago, the submarine was located at (2, -1, -1/3). The aircraft is due in 20 min. Assuming that the submarine moves in a straight line at a constant speed, to what position should the surface ships direct the aircraft?

I I /

_---I.
-----_

B
I

(l, 3, 2)

z
x

---

----.J!___
I /

1/

v:

:
I //

-------1//

Ship A

ShipB

(4,0,0)

(0,5,0)

5. Consider the weight suspended by two wires in each diagram. Find the magnitudes and components of vectors F I and F 2, and angles a and {3.

a.

-\
Nor TO SCALE
Submarine

2. A helicopter rescue Two helicopters, HI and H 2, are traveling together. At time t = 0, they separate and follow different straight-line paths given by

b.

HI: H2:

x = 6 + 40t, x = 6 + 11 Ot,

Y = -3 + lOt, Y = -3 + 4t,

z = -3 + 2t z = -3 + t.

Time t is measured in hours and all coordinates are measured in miles. Due to system malfunctions, H2 stops its flight at (446, 13, 1) and, in a negligible amount of time, lands at (446, 13,0). Two hours later, HI is advised of this fact and heads toward H2 at 150 mph. How long will it take HI to reach H2? 3. Torque The operator's manual for the Toro 21 in. lawnmower says "tighten the spark plug to 15 ft-lb (20.4 N m)." If you are installing the plug with a lO.5-in. socket wrench that places the center of your hand 9 in. from the axis of the spark plug, about how hard should you pull? Answer in pounds.

(Hint: This triangle is a right triangle.)

6. Consider a weight of w N suspended by two wires in the diagram, where T I and T 2 are force vectors directed along the wires.

a. Find the vectors T I and T 2 and show that their magnitudes are w cos (3 ITII = sin (a + (3) 4. Rotating body The line through the ongm and the point A( 1, 1, 1) is the axis of rotation of a right body rotating with a constant angular speed of3/2 rad/sec. The rotation appears to be and

121-

wcosa sin (a+{3)

Chapter 12 Additional and Advanced Exercises

b. For a fIxed {j determine the value of a which minimizes the

705

magnitude IT ,I. c. For a fIxed a determine the value of (j which minimizes the magnitude IT21
7. Determinants and planes

11. Use vectors to show that the distance from P,(XhY') to the line ax+by=cis
d

lax, + by,

Va 2 + b 2

cl

a. Showthat
XI X2 -

12. a. Use vectors to ahow that the distance from P,(XhYh z,) to the plane Ax + By + Cz Dis
Zt Z2 -

X
X

X3 -

Y' - Y Y2 - Y y, - Y

z
Z

VA2+B2+C 2

Z3 -

is an equation for the plane through the three noncollinear points Pt(xt, Yh Zt), P2(X2,)I2, Z2), and P3(X3,Y3, Z3).
b. What set of points in space is described by the equation
x
Xl
X2

b. Find an equation for the sphere that is tangent to the planes x + Y + z 3 and x + Y + z 9 if the planes 2x - Y 0 and 3x - z 0 pass through the center of the sphere.

13. a. Show that the distance between the parallel planes Ax + By + Cz D, and Ax + By + Cz D, is
d

Y
Yl
Y2

Z
Zl
Z2

I I

ID, - D21 IAi + Bj + Ckl .

6 and

07

X3

Y3

Z3

b. Find the distance between the planes 2x + 3y - z 2x + 3y - z 12.

8. Determinant. and line.

Show that the lines

c. Find an equation for the plane parallel to the plane 2x - Y + 2z -4 if the point (3, 2, -I) is equidistant from the two planes.
d. Write equations for the planes that lie parallel to and 5 units away from the plane x - 2y + z 3. 14. Prove that four points A, B, C, and D are coplanar (lie in a common plane) if and only if AD . (AB X BC) O.

and

intersect or are parallel if and only if

at Cl

b1-d1
b2
-

a2 a3

C2 C3

d2

O.

b3 -d3

15. The projection of a veetor on a plane Let P be a plane in space and let v be a vector. The vector projection ofv onto the plane P, projp v, can be defmed informally as follows. Suppose the suo is shining so that its rays are norma1 to the plane P. Then projp v is the "shadow" ofv onto P. If P is the plane x + 2y + 6z 6 and v i + j + k,fmdprojpv.
16. The accompanying figure shows nonzero vectors v, W, and z, with z orthogonal to the line L, and v aod w ma1cing equal angles {j with L. Assuming Iv I Iwi, fmd w in tenns ofv and z.

9. Consider a regular tetrahedron of side length 2.

a. Use vectors to fmd the angle 0 formed by the base of the tetrahedron and any one of its other edges.
D

2
B
p

b. Use vectors to fmd the angle 0 formed by any two adjacent faces of the tetrahedron. This angle is commonly referred to as a dihedral angle.

17. Triple vector products The triple vector products (u X v) X w and u X (v X w) are usoally not equal, although the formulas for evaluating them from components are similar: (u
X

v)

(u'w)v - (vw)u. (u'w)v - (uv)w.

10. In the fIgure here, D is the midpoint of side AB oftriang1e ABC, and E is onethird of the way between C and B. Use vectors to prove that F is the midpoint of line segment CD.
C

u X (v X w)

VerilY each formula for the following vectors by evaluating its two sides and coroparing the results. u v w

a. 2i b. i-j+k c. 2i+ j d. i+j-2k

Zj Zi+j-Zk 2i-j+k -i - k

Zk -i+Zj-k i + 2k 2i+4j-2k

706

Chapter 12: Vectors and the Geometry of Space

Show that if u, v, w, and r are any 21. Use vectors to prove that

18. Cro.s and dot products

vectors, then
b. u X v - (u'v X i)i + (u'v X j)j + (u'v X k)k c.(uXv).(wxr)_lu,W

(a' + b')(c' + d') '" (ac + bd)'

v - ci

ur

V'WI. v"r

for any four nurohers a, b, c, and d. (Hint: Let u - ai + bj and + dj.) Show that dot multipli-

22. Dot multiplication is positive def"utite

cation of vectors is positive definite; that is, show that u . u

for every vector u and that U' u - 0 if and only ifu - O. 23. Show that Iu + v I '" Iu I + Iv I for any vectors u and v. 24. Show that w - Iv Iu + Iu Iv bisects the angle between u and v. 25. Showthat Ivlu + lulvand Ivlu - lulvare orthogonal.

19. Cro and dot products

Prove or disprove the formula

u X (u X (u X v))w - -Iul'u'v X w. 20. By forming the cross product of two appropriate vectors, derive the trigonometric identity sin(A - B) - sinAcosB - cosAsinB.

Chapter

Technology Application Projects

Mathematica/Maple Module:
Using to Represent Lilies and Find Distances Parts I and II: Learn the advantages of interpretiog lines as vectors. Part ill: Use vectors to f"md the distance from a point to a line.
Putting a in DiMensions onto Il 'IWo-DiIIIensional Caln'llS Use the concept of planes in space to obtain a two-dimensional image.

Getting Started in Plotting in 3D Part I: Use the vector def"mition of lines and planes to generste graphs and equations, and to compare different forms for the equations of a single line. Part II: Plot functions that are def"med implicitly.