Inbar JR v4n1

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J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1 2 (2005) VSP 2005.
Foreword
Dear Reader, This issue is already the rst of our fourth volume. We managed to complete three volumes, each of them with 400 pages or more, with many interesting articles. While reecting about this Foreword, I browsed the pages of some past issues and really I am satised by the scientic level. Our authors did a good job! The same goes for the members of our Editorial Board, whose names appear on the inside front cover. Fortunately we also have the support of many external reviewers. In 2004 the people listed below have been so kind to act as such: J. van Acker, B. Baker, V. Brias, K. Cheung, J. Dawson, Y. Fracheboud, D. Goh, Y. Inagaki, P. Jaehrlich, W. de Jong, A. Jorissen, S. Kawai, A. Kempthorne, W. Killmann, Hoi Why Kong, M. T. Lim, J. Loferski, A. Loo, P. Mathew, C. Miles, T. Okamoto, A. A. OtengAmoako (twice), S. Pagiola, D. Pearce, N. K. Rao, T. Sunderland, H. Thoemen, L. Wgberg and L. Weisner. Overlooking this long list I remember very well the huge support which has been given by all these people, resulting in a high quality of the articles published. I would like to express my sincere gratitude for their time and effort. They do their reviewing in their own time as volunteers, without any reward. The aim of our Journal is to provide a platform for scientic publications on bamboo and rattan, but in fact our aim is to alleviate poverty in developing countries where bamboo and rattan are indigenous. On some occasions in my life I have been in a position to assist in housing projects in direct contact with the local population. Still I have a good feeling about such activities; I will never forget the progress in happiness for the families and the improvement in childrens diseases. Are such things valid for our Journal? Not in the short term, but in the long term I am convinced our scientic articles will support improvements for poor families. Scientic research is a must for the future of any activity. For this reason I am happy to have the honour to act as Editor-in-Chief.
Foreword
I do hope this rst issue of our fourth volume is the next step towards a promising future. Together we will manage to continue on our way. Only one thing I would like to see: letters to the editor! In other journal these make the journal more lively. Reactions by readers and answers by authors would be quite an improvement. Please think about this? I do hope you will enjoy this volume even more as the previous ones. JULES JANSSEN Eindhoven, November 23, 2004
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Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds

M. M. S. RAWAT
Seed Laboratory, Silviculture Division, Arid Forest Research Institute, New Pali Road, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
Editorial note: Unfortunately the author of this article passed away before he could use the recommendations by the reviewers for his revised article. To pay respect to this scientist and in view of the importance of the information in this article, it is published with editing only. On the next page you will nd an Obituary, followed by the article. JULES JANSSEN
Dr. Man Mohan Singh Rawat
M. M. S. RAWAT
Obituary Dr. Man Mohan Singh Rawat (31 December 19561 March 2004) It is with a deep sense of grief to learn of the sudden passing away of Dr. M. M. S. Rawat after coronary artery heart by-pass surgery at the young age of 47 years. This came as a great shock. Born in 1956 at Dehra Dun (Uttaranchal), India, he joined the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun in 1977 as Research Assistant after his MSc in botany in 1976 from H. N. B. Garhwal University. He was awarded the DPh degree in Forestry Seeds in 2001 from FRI Deemed University, Dehra Dun. In 1996 he was appointed as Research Ofcer at Forestry Seeds Laboratory, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. He had very good and vast research experience in forestry seeds research. He was appointed as Scientist-B and joined the Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur (Rajasthan) on 13 June 2002. He has about 30 research papers published in various national and international repute journals to his name. He was working on the seeds quality and their improvement for arid zone forestry in India from June 2002 and felt ill in the last week of November 2003 after diagnosis of coronary artery heart disease. In December 2003 he went to New Delhi for bypass surgery. While recovering his health at Dehra Dun he passed away on 1 March 2004 after sudden heart failure. Dr. M. M. S. Rawat was a person of quiet disposition, hard working, amiable and helpful for staff, colleagues and friends. His wife, Mrs. Neelam Rawat, a teacher at St. Thomas College, Dehra Dun, was a source of great strength to him. His wife Mrs. Neelam Rawat and only daughter, Miss Vanushri Rawat, who is doing her study for a bachelor degree in engineering at Dehra Dun, survive him. Dr. M. M. S. Rawat will be a great loss to the science community as a whole and especially in forestry seeds in India. He will be also greatly missed by his relatives, friends and colleagues. May his soul rest in peace.
AbstractStudies were conducted on seeds of three bamboo species, viz., Dendrocalamus membranaceus, D. strictus and Bambusa nutans, to determine a combination of conditions ensuring the most regular, rapid and complete germination under laboratory conditions. The seeds were sown at different combinations of incubation temperatures (20, 25, 30, 35, 40 C and 2030 C) and sowing media (top of paper, between paper and sand). Seeds were also sown in the presence and absence of light at 30 C on top of paper. The ideal conditions for testing seeds of all the three species were found to be 30 C, top of paper and preferably presence of light. Key words: Dendrocalamus membranaceus; D. strictus; Bambusa nutans; seed; germination.
INTRODUCTION
It is indispensable to follow a standard pattern for testing seeds for germination in order to ensure uniformity and reproducibility of results. Testing under eld conditions is normally unsatisfactory and, therefore, laboratory methods have been developed in which the external conditions are controlled to obtain most regular, rapid and complete germination of seeds [1]. The most important factors affecting germination under laboratory conditions are temperature, media and light, which need standardisation for each species. Temperature is one of the most critical factors and there is usually an optimal temperature below and above which germination is delayed or prevented. Soil is rarely used as a substrate for germination tests because each sample will vary greatly in physical, chemical and biological properties. Thus, the lack of reproducibility and difculty in comparing tests of different seed lots renders it unsuitable. Articial media are much more easily standardized and, hence, the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) [2] recognized three germination media: top of paper (TP), between two layers of paper (BP) and sand. The effect of light on germination has been known to vary considerably with the seeds of different species. Some seeds germinate after being given a brief illumination while some are indifferent to the presence or absence of light during germination. Such standardizations have been lacking for bamboo species probably due to rare availability of seeds. ISTA rules [1], though providing guidelines for testing few tropical tree species, do not mention bamboo species. The seeds of most bamboos have been reported to lose viability rapidly under ordinary storage conditions [3] and, therefore, require testing before sowing in nursery. The present paper reports optimum germination conditions for the seeds of three bamboo species, viz., Dendrocalamus membranaceus, D. strictus and Bambusa nutans, to obtain full germination potential of a seed lot.
M. M. S. RAWAT
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seed The seeds of D. membranaceus and D. strictus were collected from the campus of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (Uttranchal, India) during 1992 and 1994, respectively, while the seeds of B. nutans were procured from Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, MP. The seeds were collected during April from Sarguja area of MP where it owered gregariously during 1994. The seeds stored at 5 C with around 5% moisture content were used for the following study, except in second experiment where seeds of D. strictus stored at 15 C were used. Germination test Constant temperatures of 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 C and alternating 2030 C (16 h at 20 C and 8 h at 30 C) were used in combination with germination media TP, BP and sand. All the tests were carried out in four replications of 100 seeds each. Glass petridishes of 15 cm diameter lined with moist towel germination paper were used as TP. For BP, seeds were spread on moistened germination paper and rolled. Sterilized quartz sand as prescribed in ISTA rules, lled in enamelled trays, 4530 cm in size, was used as a medium in which seeds were sown 1 cm deep. All the media were kept just moist throughout the test period using tap water. All the seeds sown as above were incubated in seed germinators set at specied temperatures with around 95% humidity. Light was provided for 8 h daily during the test period by cool uorescent lights. Germination was recorded daily and a seed was counted as germinated when radicle and plumule attained at least 1 cm length and were free from visual fungal infection or deformation. In sand, a seed was considered as germinated when plumule attained at least 1 cm height above the sand surface. The test was terminated when there was no further germination. In the second experiment, the effect of light on germination was observed at 30 C on TP following the results of the above experiment. The germinators set at 30 C with and without light were used to investigate the effect of light. Care was taken to avoid light during recording of germination. The mean germination time (MGT) was calculated as described by Bonner [4]. Treatments effect and interaction was analysed by ANOVA techniques after arc sin transformation of germination percentages.
RESULTS
The seeds of all the three species were found to be non-dormant and germinated readily within few days. The germination, in terms of percent as well as MGT was, however, signicantly (P < 0.01) affected by incubation temperature, sowing media and their interaction as detailed below.
Effect of temperature on germination per cent In D. membranaceus (Table 1), signicant difference was observed in mean germination per cent at all the temperatures tested (P < 0.05), except between 35 C and 2030 C, with 41.0 and 37.7%, respectively. The maximum mean germination of 46.2% was obtained at 30 C, while the minimum was recorded at 20 C (9.8%). In D. strictus (Table 2), the mean germination per cent at 30 and 25 C was maximum (84.3 and 82.6%, respectively) and signicantly higher as compared to other temperatures (P < 0.05). This was closely followed by 35, 40 and 2030 C with 78.3, 77.3 and 76.9% mean germination, respectively, and remained at par with one another. At 20 C the mean germination was reduced to 58.7%. In B. nutans (Table 3), at 30 and 35 C the mean germination was 54.6 and 57.6%, respectively, and was signicantly higher (P < 0.05) than the rest of the temperatures. At 25, 2030 and 40 C the mean germination ranged between
Table 1. Effect of temperature and media on percent germination of D. membranaceus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 15.5 (23.2) 50.0 (45.0) 59.5 (50.5) 57.0 (49.0) 34.0 (35.6) 50.3 (45.2) 44.4 (41.4) BP 14.0 (22.0) 49.0 (44.4) 60.0 (50.8) 50.0 (45.0) 30.0 (33.2) 41.8 (40.3) 40.8 (39.3) Sand 0.0 (00.0) 10.0 (18.4) 19.0 (25.9) 16.0 (16.4) 12.3 (20.5) 21.0 (27.3) 13.0 (19.3) 9.8 (15.0) 36.3 (36.0) 46.2 (42.4) 41.0 (39.2) 25.4 (29.8) 37.7 (37.6) Mean
Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia 2.70.
CD at 5%: temperature 1.56; media 1.10;
Table 2. Effect of temperature and media on percent germination of D. strictus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 69.5 (56.5) 87.5 (69.9) 87.5 (69.4) 85.5 (67.7) 86.5 (68.5) 82.3 (65.2) 83.1 (66.2) BP 71.5 (57.8) 83.0 (66.0) 86.5 (68.7) 86.0 (68.1) 84.5 (67.1) 78.3 (62.3) 81.6 (65.0) Sand 35.0 (36.3) 77.3 (61.5) 78.8 (62.8) 63.5 (52.9) 61.0 (51.4) 70.3 (57.0) 64.3 (53.7) 58.7 (50.2) 82.6 (65.8) 84.3 (66.0) 78.3 (62.9) 77.3 (62.3) 76.9 (61.5) Mean
M. M. S. RAWAT
Table 3. Effect of temperature and media on percent germination of B. nutans seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 33.5 (35.4) 54.5 (47.6) 60.5 (51.1) 61.0 (51.4) 53.5 (47.3) 52.8 (46.6) 51.0 (45.6) BP 39.0 (38.6) 52.0 (46.2) 57.5 (49.3) 61.0 (51.4) 55.0 (47.9) 47.8 (43.7) 52.0 (46.2) Sand 8.5 (16.9) 31.0 (33.8) 45.8 (42.6) 50.8 (45.5) 31.8 (34.3) 29.5 (32.9) 32.9 (34.3) 27.0 (30.3) 45.8 (42.5) 54.6 (47.7) 57.6 (49.4) 43.4 (41.2) 43.3 (41.1) Mean
45.8 and 43.3%, and remained at par with one another, while the minimum mean germination was recorded at 20 C (27.0%). Effect of media on percent germination In D. membranaceus (Table 1), TP gave maximum mean germination of 44.4% and was signicantly different from other media (P < 0.05). BP followed this with 40.8% and the minimum 13.0% was recorded in sand. In D. strictus (Table 2), the mean germination of 83.1 and 81.6% was recorded on TP and in BP, respectively, and remained at par with each other. In sand, the mean germination was signicantly reduced to 64.3%. Similarly, B. nutans (Table 3) showed signicantly higher mean germination on TP (51%) and BP (52%) as compared to sand (32.9%). Effect of temperature on mean germination time In D. membranaceus (Table 4), the mean MGT was signicantly different at all the temperatures (P < 0.05). The minimum was recorded at 30 C (15.32), while the maximum of 21.61 was recorded at 20 C. In D. strictus (Table 5), at 30 and 35 C the mean MGT was minimum (9.82 and 9.65, respectively) and at par with each other but signicantly different from other temperatures (P < 0.05). The mean MGT was highest at 20 C (18.63). In B. nutans (Table 6), all the temperatures showed signicant difference (P < 0.05) in mean MGT, except at 25 and 2030 C, which were at par with each other with 16.60 and 16.80, respectively. At 35 C the mean MGT was lowest (13.27) followed by 30 C (14.16), while the maximum was obtained at 20 C (20.76). Effect of media on mean germination time In D. membranaceus (Table 4), signicantly lowest mean MGT (16.27) was obtained in TP (P < 0.05), closely followed by BP (17.48) while maximum of
Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds Table 4. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination time (MGT) of D. membranaceus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 21.38 16.52 13.02 13.32 17.53 15.87 16.27 BP 21.45 17.07 13.22 16.10 19.57 17.48 17.48 Sand 22.00 21.61 20.33 20.55 21.05 20.50 21.00
Mean
21.61 18.40 15.52 16.66 19.38 17.95
CD at 5%: temperature 0.32; media 0.22; temperaturemedia 0.55. Table 5. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination time (MGT) of D. strictus seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 17.14 9.82 7.44 7.48 8.01 9.87 9.96 BP 18.08 8.93 7.74 7.50 8.04 9.63 9.99 Sand 20.69 14.52 13.79 14.47 14.12 14.87 15.41 18.63 11.09 9.65 9.82 10.05 11.46 Mean
CD at 5%: temperature 0.44; media 0.31; temperaturemedia 0.75.
21.00 in sand. In D. strictus (Table 5), the lowest mean MGT, i.e., 9.96 and 9.99, was obtained at TP and BP, respectively, which remained at par, while the maximum was obtained in sand (15.41). A similar trend was observed in B. nutans (Table 6), where TP and BP showed minimum MGT of 14.80 and 14.69, respectively, as compared to sand (19.09). Effect of light/dark on percent germination and MGT In all the three species there was insignicant difference (P > 0.05) in percent germination of seeds sown under light and dark (data not shown). The germination was 57.0 and 56.0% in D. membranaceus, 61.5 and 64.0% in D. strictus and 55.0 and 54.5% in B. nutans in light and dark, respectively. Similarly, MGT was not signicantly affected by the presence or absence of light in all the three species. The MGT was 10.97 and 11.18 in D. membranaceus, 9.15 and 9.00 in D. strictus and 10.17 and 10.30 in B. nutans in light and dark, respectively.
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M. M. S. RAWAT
Table 6. Effect of temperature and media on mean germination time (MGT) of B. nutans seeds Temperature ( C) 20 25 30 35 40 2030 Mean Media TP 20.09 14.69 12.24 11.85 15.28 14.68 14.80 BP 20.53 14.58 12.73 11.85 13.33 15.13 14.69 Sand 21.66 20.55 17.53 16.12 18.14 20.59 19.09 20.76 16.60 14.16 13.27 15.58 16.80 Mean
CD at 5%: temperature 0.39; media 0.27; temperaturemedia 0.67.
DISCUSSION
The germination characteristics of seeds of bamboo species seem to be specic to a particular kind. All the three species under investigation exhibited more or less similar response with respect to incubation temperature, sowing media and presence or absence of light. Temperature is one of the most critical factors in the laboratory germination of seeds. This became evident in all the three species of bamboos, which showed 30 C as the ideal temperature for germination, though seeds of D. strictus and B. nutans germinated equally well at 25 and 35 C, respectively. As expected, it took minimum days to complete germination at 30 C as the MGT was minimum at this temperature, except B. nutans, which showed minimum at 35 C. At temperatures below or above 30 C, the germination was not only drastically delayed but also reduced in percentage with little exceptions. A critical temperature of 30 C has been shown to be ideal for several indigenous tropical tree species [5, 6]. Maximum germination at 30 C has also been reported in D. strictus [7] and B. tulda [8]. With respect to germination media, all three species of bamboos germinated equally well on TP and BP, except D. strictus, which performed best at TP. TP, however, was found to be the best as on this media seedlings could be evaluated more easily for abnormalities. Seedlings in BP remained somewhat whitish yellow due to lack of sufcient light, making it difcult to distinguish albino seedlings, which seems to be a characteristic of bamboo species. TP has been reported as a best media for germination of B. tulda seeds [8]. ISTA [2] also prescribed TP as the best media for germination of small seeds. In sand the germination was not only drastically slow but also reduced signicantly. The seeds of all the three species germinated equally well in dark and light. There was no signicant difference in germination percent, as well as MGT in seeds sown in total darkness and in light (P > 0.05). However, a cycle of 8 h daily light seems to be essential for proper evaluation of seedlings for abnormality. Seedlings in dark remained whitish yellow making it again difcult to distinguish albino seedlings.
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ISTA [2] also mentioned that seedlings grown in complete dark are etiolated and become more sensitive to attack by micro-organisms and it becomes difcult to detect chlorophyll deciency. Thus, the ideal conditions that could be used for determining germination capacity of a seed lot are 30 C, TP and preferably presence of light. Although the above study is based on a single seed lot of each species, it provides a base regarding testing conditions of bamboo seeds. The availability of different seed lots of a species of bamboo is a major constraint mainly due to long owering intervals of several years.
REFERENCES
1. ISTA, International Rules for Seed Testing, Seed Science and Technology 24 (Suppl.) (1996). 2. ISTA, International Rules for Seed testing. Rules and annexes. International Seed Testing Association, Seed Science and Technology 4, 3117 (1976). 3. M. M. S. Rawat and R. C. Thapliyal, Storage behaviour of bamboo (Dendrocalamus membranaceus) seeds, Seed Science and Technology 31 (2), 397403 (2003). 4. F. T. Bonner, Germination responses of loblolly pine to temperature differentials on a two way thermogradient plate, Journal of Seed Technology 8 (1), 614 (1983). 5. B. N. Gupta, P. G. Pattanath, A. Kumar, R. C. Thapliyal and A. S. Raturi, Rules for germination test of tree seeds for certication, Indian Forestry 101 (6), 320327 (1975). 6. B. N. Gupta and P. G. Pattanath, Germination responses of some forest tree seeds under controlled conditions, Indian Forestry 102 (5), 264272 (1976). 7. B. N. Gupta and A. Kumar, Interrelated effects of temperature and moisture on seed germination of Dendrocalamus strictus Nees, Indian Forestry 103 (3), 212219 (1977). 8. R. C. Thapliyal, O. P. Sood and M. M. S. Rawat, Effect of moisture content and storage temperature on the viability of Bambusa tulda seed, International Tree and Crops Journal 7, 6795 (1991).
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan region, India. Part II: fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots sales
B. P. BHATT , L. B. SINGHA, M. S. SACHAN and K. SINGH
Agroforestry Division, ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Himalayan Region, Umroi Road, Umiam, Meghalaya 793 103, India
AbstractThe sales of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim, of the North-Eastern Himalayan (NEH) region, India have been reported. The results are based on the survey of 118 markets covering 1200 primary and secondary vendors from 51 districts of NEH region. The consumption of fermented, roasted and boiled shoots was estimated to be ca. 680 tonnes; the highest occurs in Arunachal Pradesh (481 tonnes/year) and the lowest in Nagaland (19.5 tonnes/year). The bamboo shoots are consumed in the form of fermented-slice, crushed-fermented moist, crushed-fermented dry, fermented whole shoot, roasted whole shoot and boiled whole shoot in different states of the region. Costreturn analysis for sales of these bamboo products revealed a net income of 23 million rupees per annum (US$ 502 950) from the entire region with the highest (17.5 million rupees/year or US$ 38 270) in Arunachal Pradesh and the lowest in Sikkim (0.47 million rupees/year or US$ 10 280). Employment opportunities have also been worked out and ca. 1260 persons/year could earn their subsistence through selling of bamboo shoot products. Key words: Bamboo shoots; North-East Himalaya (NEH) region; India; consumption; costreturn analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Over 1500 bamboo species belonging to 75 genera occur worldwide in natural forests, semi-exploited stands and intensive plantations [1], of which India has contributed about 130 species belonging to 23 genera [2, 3]. As many as 78 bamboo species (both indigenous and exotic) belonging to 19 genera are being reported from the North-East region of India [4].
To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: bpbhatt@neline.com
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B. P. Bhatt et al.
The range of application of bamboo for mankind is remarkable, with an annual use of 12 kg bamboo biomass per capita in Asia [5, 6]. Besides the use of different bamboo parts as fuel, fodder, medicine, pulping material, construction and household as well as farms, the edible nature of tender shoots of some species enhanced the importance of bamboo in the global scenario. Data on worldwide production of bamboo products are extremely unreliable, as they do not appear in the major commodity databases. Worldwide, more than 2 million tonnes of bamboo shoots are consumed annually [7] with approximately 1.3 million tonnes produced in China [8]. In metropolitan Tokyo, more than 8000 tonnes of young shoots are consumed annually [9]. In India, bamboo shoots in fresh, fermented, roasted and pickle form are consumed, especially in the North-East region. Around 1000 tonnes of fresh bamboo shoots are reported to be obtained only through market places of three tribal states of this region, where an annual gross income of ca. US$ 111 000 could be generated [10]. In spite of the consumption of fresh bamboo shoots in the North-East region, a considerable quantity of bamboo shoots is also consumed in the form of fermented products, roasted and pickles after processing through conventional methods. Almost all the ethnic groups of the region use bamboo shoot products in preparing major or minor food items. They are also applied in small quantities as food additives to improve delicacy of vegetarian or non-vegetarian dishes. Among the processed bamboo shoots, fermented products and pickles fetch higher income due to the ability of their long-term preservation with higher market price and their consumption throughout the year. In part I of this series, entitled Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan (NEH) region, India: Young shoot sales [11], the main emphasis was on investigation and documentation the diversity of commercial edible bamboo species available in the NEH region, the annual consumption pattern of fresh tender shoots through market places and their costreturn analysis, including physical efforts made in merchandizing fresh bamboo shoots. Most of the Governmental and Non-Governmental Organisations are giving full emphasis to utilize the available bamboo resources in the region through scientic implications for the sustainable development of the NEH region, and India as well. Although, no such efforts are being made on edible nature of bamboo shoots and their allied products with commercial importance in the NEH region or elsewhere in other parts of India. In continuation to the previous study on edible bamboo species in the NEH region [11], the present study gives special emphasis to investigate and to document the annual consumption rate of processed bamboo shoot products through market places, their commercial values, the costreturn analysis, the indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) on bamboo shoot processing, etc. An attempt has also been made to understand the revenue generation through traditionally processed bamboo shoots and its potential to provide employment opportunities in the NEH region of India.
Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II
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STUDY SITE
The study was carried out in the North-Eastern Himalayan region (NEH) of India, covering 7 states, namely Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura (Fig. 1). The region lies between 2130 N latitude and 8598 E longitude, and occupies an area of 18.4 million ha. The region has a difcult terrain with hilly topography, characterized by steep slopes, gorges and plateaus with less than 15% valleys. The elevation ranges from 100 m to 5600 m above sea level (asl), tropical to alpine agro-climatic condition with ca. 100 to 6000 mm annual rainfall. This peculiar agro-climatic condition of the NEH region has supported very rich and diverse ora and fauna including bamboo species for which the region could account a position among the 25 hot spots of the world. Based on the State of Forest Report [12] and Basic Statistics [13], the total land area and human population of the 7 states of the NEH region are shown in Fig. 2, in which the highest population density was reported in Tripura (304 persons/km2 ) and the lowest in Arunachal Pradesh (13 persons/km2 ). The range of total human population in the 7 states is very large and varies from 0.89 to 3.19 million. More
Figure 1. Location map of the study sites in the NEH region, India.
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Figure 2. Total human population (1) and geographical area (!) of 7 states in the NEH region, India.
than 70% of the total population of the region belongs to the rural sectors and they exploit tender bamboo shoots from natural forests, plantation forests and home gardens for their income generation and livelihood.
A survey of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in market places of 7 selected states in the NEH region was carried out from March 2003 to March 2004 at four months interval. More than 40% of the available market places of the entire districts of the 7 states were randomly surveyed. Out of 297 market places a total of 118 market places belonging to 51 districts of the NEH region was surveyed. Vendors of bamboo shoot products were categorized as primary (those who process bamboo shoots for different products and sell) and secondary (those who purchase processed products at wholesale rate and sell in retail rates). Baseline information was gathered from 1200 primary and secondary vendors through suitable preprepared questionnaires. This information includes the number of primary and secondary vendors available in the market places, market days per week, quantity of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots sold per day, their availability period and costs (per kg), the number of persons involved including gender and age group, the physical efforts and nancial investments made in merchandizing (fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoots), etc. Information on indigenous technical knowledge for the processing of bamboo shoots and recipes of different
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tribal communities/ethnic groups were also accumulated from the nearby villages of the respective market places. All the data were statistically analysed and presented in this paper.
RESULTS
Product preparations and description In addition to the bamboo shoot pickles, 5 more bamboo shoot products, such as fermented slice, crushed-fermented moist, crushed-fermented dry, fermented whole shoot and roasted whole shoot, were recorded from the NEH region of India. All the 5 fermented and roasted bamboo shoot products were sold in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh (Figs 35) and Nagaland (Fig. 6), and were consumed by almost all the ethnic groups and tribal communities in the two states, except Monpas (Tibetans) of West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. In Manipur fermented slice bamboo shoots and fermented whole shoots were observed in the market places, whereas only crushed-fermented (moist) was sold in Meghalaya. A unique boiled bamboo shoot product of two bamboo species was observed being sold in the market places of Sikkim. The consumption and commercialisation of processed bamboo shoots in Mizoram and Tripura were negligible. Only few ethnic groups in Mizoram consume fermented slice bamboo shoots, which in fact was met from their own processing and not through market places (Fig. 7).
Figure 3. Fermented whole shoot sold at Ganga market, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh.
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Figure 4. Roasted and crushed-fermented moist bamboo shoots sold at Seppa, East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.
Figure 5. Fermented crushed bamboo shoots sold at Pasighat, East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh.
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Figure 6. Sliced-bamboo shoots packed in polythene for fermentation process, Dimapur Ditrict, Nagaland.
Figure 7. Sliced-fermented bamboo shoot sold by secondary vendors at Khwairamband Bazar, Imphal West District, Manipur.
The principle of bamboo shoot fermentation in different states in the NEH region was similar although the indigenous technology for the processing of fermented bamboo shoot products is different among the 7 states, and even from one ethnic
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group to another. Generalized conventional methods used for the processing of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products employed in NEH region are highlighted below. Fermented-slice. Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are cleaned and washed with water. They are thinly sliced and immediately packed with polythene sheets, and wrapped with cloth/synthetic sack. They are kept under pressure using heavy weights (boulders or concrete slabs etc.) for 36 months for fermentation. The fermented bamboo shoot slices can be preserved for several months after the completion of the fermentation process. Crushed-fermented moist. Fresh bamboo shoots are simply crushed using wooden mortar and pestle after removing the hairy sheaths, and packed in polythene bags or lled into plastic/glass bottles. After 23 months fermentation in anaerobic condition, it becomes ready to consume. Crushed-fermented dry. Fresh bamboo shoots are cleaned, washed and crushed into small pieces. They are allowed to get semi-fermented for 37 days in airtight pitcher or other containers, and then sun dried. After proper drying, they are packed in polythene bags and sold in the market places or are preserved in dry form for future use. Fermented whole shoot. Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are cleaned and washed with water. They are fermented as usual in anaerobic condition using heavy weights, as in the case of fermented slice bamboo shoots. Generally, it requires more time for complete fermentation than the other fermented products. Roasted whole shoot. Fresh bamboo shoots are re roasted together with the culm sheath/swathe. After proper roasting, the culm sheath is removed carefully. It may be consumed as usual, or consumed along with rice, bread etc. In the market places, it is sold after wrapping with banana leaf, turmeric leaf, etc. It can be preserved only for 23 days. Boiled whole shoot. Freshly harvested bamboo shoots are simply boiled in water in a large container until they are cooked properly. After draining off the water, they are ready for consumption. This bamboo shoot product is also sold as roasted whole shoot in the market places, wrapping with banana leaf, but it cannot be preserved for more than 23 days. In addition to the above bamboo shoot products, fermented bamboo shoots squash, a by-product of bamboo shoot fermentation, was observed to be consumed on a commercial scale in Nagaland state. During the preparation of crushed fermented bamboo shoot products, bamboo shoot juices were decant and allowed to ferment in air tight containers for six to ten days till it becomes ready for consumption.
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Figure 8. A customer purchasing bamboo shoot squash at Wokha market, Nagaland.
Liquid remnants of fermented-slice or crushed bamboo shoots after their complete fermentation were consumed as usual in little quantity as food additives. The annual consumption of bamboo shoot squash in Nagaland was recorded as ca. 71 630 litres per year (Fig. 8). Table 1 gives the traditional dishes prepared from fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region. The consumption pattern of different bamboo shoot products are different among the different ethnic groups, although, all the fermented products are consumed as food additives by applying in little quantity to increase the delicacy of different dishes. In the Wokha district of Nagaland, consumption of the basal part of tender culm sheath after fermentation is also a unique bamboo shoot product of the region. It is known as Rhuyem by the Lotha tribe and especially used for the preparation of duck-meat curries. In Manipur, Soibum (slice fermented) and Soidon (whole shoot fermented) are the two highly esteemed fermented bamboo shoot products which are consumed as major dishes, as well as used as additives in vegetable and non-vegetable dishes. In Mizoram, Tripura and Sikkim, there were no fermented bamboo shoot products sold in the market places, whereas, in Sikkim, bamboo shoots in boiled form was observed to be sold on a commercial scale. The period of availability of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in the market place of the NEH region and the quantity sold (per day and per year) are presented in Table 2. The six different processed bamboo shoot products sold
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Table 1. Traditional dishes prepared from fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region, India Description of dishes
State
Bamboo shoot products
Local name/dialect
Arunachal Pradesh
Roasted bamboo shoots
Eva/Nyishing
Fermented
Slice, Hikhu/Apatani Crushed, Ekung/Nishies Crushed dry, Eup/Nishies Whole shoot, Hitak/Nishies
This is a pre-cooked/re roasted fresh bamboo shoot. It can be consumed as usual or is consumed by applying it in other vegetable/meat curries. All the fermented products like crushed fermented, dry, sliced or whole shoot fermented are applied in small amounts to other curries (vegetable/non-vegetable) to increase their delicacy.
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented
Slice, Soibum/Manipuri
Whole shoot, Soidon/ Manipuri
Slice fermented shoots are boiled/fried with potato, mixed with chilli, salt, Haotonia cordata, etc. It is also cooked along with sh/meat, etc. Slice-fermented shoots are boiled with potato, arum stem and are mixed with chilli, coriander, seeds of Eurayl ferox, salt and dry sh. Small pieces of fermented whole shoots are chopped and boiled/fried with potato, salt, chilli, or with sh/meat etc. Little quantity of crushed-fermented product is applied to pork/beef curry to increase the delicacy. All type of fermented bamboo shoot products are applied in small quantities according to the taste preferred to all type of curries including boil curries, vegetable and non-vegetable dishes.
Meghalaya
Fermented
Crushed, Syrwa/Khasi
Nagaland
Fermented
Slice, Zusem/Ao Crushed, Zutsuk/Ao Crushed dry, Yisu/Ao Whole shoot, Sethu/Ao Squash, Zitzu/Ao
Sikkim
Boiled bamboo shoot
Whole shoot, Mesu/Nepali
It is pre-cooked/boiled bamboo shoots. It may be consumed as such along with bread/biscuits etc. and are applied generally to vegetables and non-vegetable curries.
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in the market places can be categorized as fermented, roasted and boiled forms. Fermented products had the longest availability period with larger quantity sold in the market places than roasted and boiled forms. The availability of fermented slice and fermented whole shoot in Manipur state had longer period compared to that of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. A comparatively large quantity of fermented slice compared with the other bamboo shoot products was sold in Manipur and Nagaland with ca. 105 and 6 tonnes/year, respectively. Crushedfermented moist was observed in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland, whereas crushed fermented dry was observed to be sold only in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Both crushed fermented moist and dry bamboo shoot products were sold in larger quantity in Arunachal Pradesh compared to other states in the NEH region. Fermented whole shoot was observed in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Nagaland, whereas largest quantity was sold in Arunachal Pradesh with ca. 102 tonnes/year. Roasted bamboo shoot was recorded only in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh with an annual sale of ca. 52 tonnes, whereas ca. 27 tonnes of boiled bamboo shoots was observed to sell in Sikkim. During the year 20032004, the total quantity of annual bamboo shoot products sold in the market places of the NEH region was recorded to be ca. 680 tonnes. Arunachal Pradesh has contributed highest with ca. 481 tonnes/year followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Nagaland with ca. 114, 39, 27 and 19 tonnes/year, respectively. Table 3 shows the costreturn analysis of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products sold in the market places of NEH region. The retail price (per kg) of all the 5 bamboo shoot products sold in Arunachal Pradesh was higher than those sold in other states of the NEH region. Among the six bamboo shoot products, the cost of crushed-fermented dry bamboo shoot available in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland was comparatively high whereas, boiled shoots of large bamboo species in Sikkim state were sold at cheaper rate. The gross income per day as well as per annum from the bamboo shoot products (fermented, roasted and boiled) was highest in Arunachal Pradesh with ca. 195 000 Rs/day (US$ 4264) and 32.61 million rupees per annum (US$ 713 099). It was followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim with ca. 5.2 (US$ 113 711), 1.2 (US$ 26 240), 0.8 (US$ 17 494) and 0.6 million rupees (US$ 13 120) per annum. Financial investment and physical efforts made for merchandizing bamboo shoot products in the NEH region was also recorded to be highest in Arunachal Pradesh with ca. 15 million rupees per annum (US$ 328 013), followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim with ca. 1.4 (US$ 30 614), 0.6 (US$ 13 120), 0.3 (US$ 6560) and 0.1 million (US$ 2186) rupees per annum, respectively. The highest net income from bamboo shoot products after deduction of both nancial investment and physical efforts was observed in Arunachal Pradesh with 17.5 million rupees per annum (US$ 382 681) followed by Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim with ca. 3.8 (US$ 83 093), 0.6 (US$ 13 120), 0.6 (US$ 13 120) and 0.5 million rupees (US$ 10 933) per annum, respectively. The total gross income from the fermented,
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Table 2. Fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products sold in the market places of the NEH region, India (mean SD) Availability of products in the market places (days/year) 180 5 180 5 180 5 180 3 90 6 192 19 190 3 70 5 78 4 90 7 78 11 67 9 70 5 70 5 548 14 48 4 596 18 560 80 82 23 62 41 100 13 20 4 46 9 258 52 162 20 1604 105 53 22 567 65 576 78 2962 290 Products sold (kg/day) Products sold (tonnes/year)
State
Bamboo shoot product
Arunachal Pradesh
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry Fermented whole shoot Roasted whole shoot Total
29.2 3.6 288.7 18.9 9.5 1.0 102.1 11.7 51.8 7.0 481.3 42.2 105.2 2.7 9.1 0.8 114.3 3.5 39.2 5.6 6.4 1.8 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.1 6.7 0.9 1.4 0.3 3.2 0.6 18.5 3.9
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented slice Fermented whole shoot Total
Meghalaya
Crushed-fermented moist
Nagaland
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented dry (outer portion/culm sheath)a Crushed-fermented dry (inner portion/rhizome)b Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry (mixture of different bamboo species) Fermented whole shoot Total
Table 2. (Continued) Availability of products in the market places (days/year) 15 8 48 6 Products sold (kg/day) Products sold (tonnes/year)
State
Sikkim
Whole shoot boil of narrow bamboo speciesc Whole shoot boil of large bamboo speciesd Total Grand total
246 33 477 52 723 85 5099 525
3.7 0.5 22.9 2.5 26.6 3.0 679.9 58.2
a Basal
b Crushed
part of tender culm sheath of fresh bamboo shoot in dried form. fermented tender rhizomes in dried form. c Narrow bamboo species consist of C. hookeriana. d Large bamboo species consist of D. hamiltonii and D. giganteus.
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Table 3. Costreturn analysis of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in the NEH region, India (mean SD) Retail price (Rs/kg) Gross income (Rs/day) Gross income (million Rs/year) Financial investment and wages for mandays (million Rs/year) 3.87 0.29 5.86 0.66 1.69 0.58 2.76 0.21 0.95 0.05 15.13 1.79 1.32 0.03 0.08 0.02 1.40 0.05 0.59 0.02 0.26 0.07 0.14 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.13 0.02 0.17 0.03 0.06 0.01 0.83 0.20 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.26 0.09 Net income (million Rs/year)
States
Arunachal Pradesh
Fermented slice Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry Fermented whole shoot Roasted whole shoot Total 45 5 50 5 30 5 41 3 262 12 237 11 19 2 120 12 19 4 1572 524 948 237 1900 247 2400 480 874 171 11 056 2602 3362 943 16 800 2400 24 660 630 2400 200 27 060 830 4.73 0.12 0.46 0.04 5.19 0.16 1.18 0.17
320 30 43 10 322 50 52 15 48 5
51 840 6400 68 972 4515 17 066 7084 29 484 3380 27 648 3744 195 010 25 123
9.33 1.15 12.41 0.81 3.07 1.28 5.31 0.61 2.49 0.34 32.61 4.19
5.46 0.86 6.55 0.15 1.38 0.70 2.55 0.40 1.54 0.29 17.48 2.40 3.41 0.09 0.38 0.02 3.79 0.11 0.59 0.15 0.24 0.06 0.10 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.57 0.14
B. P. Bhatt et al.
Manipur
Fermented-slice Fermented whole shoot Total
Meghalaya
Crushed-fermented moist
Nagaland
Fermented-slice Crushed-fermented dry (outer portion/culm sheath)a Crushed-fermented dry (inner portion/rhizome)b Crushed-fermented moist Crushed-fermented dry (mixture of dry bamboo species) Fermented whole shoot Total
Table 3. (Continued) Gross income (Rs/day) Gross income (million Rs/year) Financial investment and wages for mandays (million Rs/year) 0.03 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.10 0.02 17.48 1.97 883 010 382 244 Net income (million Rs/year)
States
Retail price (Rs/kg)
Sikkim 6642 891 8109 884 14 751 1775 264 677 32 730 5788 0.39 0.04 0.57 0.06 40.38 4.78 0.18 0.02
27 6
0.15 0.02 0.32 0.02 0.47 0.04 22.90 2.84 500 766
Whole shoot boil of narrow bamboo speciesc Whole shoot boil of large bamboo speciesd Total
17 2
Grand total (Rs.)
Grand total
(US$)e
a Basal
b Crushed
part of tender culm sheath of fresh bamboo shoot in dried form. fermented tender rhizomes in dried form. c Narrow bamboo species consist of C. hookeriana. d Large bamboo species consist of D. hamiltonii and D. giganteus. e 1 US$ = Rs. 45.73 in Indian currency (January 2004).
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B. P. Bhatt et al.
Figure 9. Net income [after deduction of nancial investment (1)] and employment opportunity (!) in the NEH region, India.
roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in NEH region, India was computed as ca. 40 million rupees per annum (US$ 874 700), with a net income of ca. 23 million rupees per annum (US$ 502 953), where a total of ca. 17 million rupee per annum (US$ 371 748) nancial investment and physical efforts as mandays were made for merchandizing them. Figure 9 depicts the monetary return, annual income generated (after the deduction of nancial investment made) from the merchandizing of bamboo shoot products and employment opportunity in the NEH region of India. During the study period, the highest income per manday was recorded in Arunachal Pradesh with Rs. 80 per day (US$ 1.75) and lowest in Manipur with Rs. 60/day (US$ 1.31), whereas in Meghalaya, Nagaland and Sikkim this was recorded to be Rs. 65 per day (US$ 1.42). The net income (after deduction of nancial investment) from selling of bamboo shoot products in Arunachal Pradesh could employ most persons (945 persons at Rs. 80 per day (US$ 1.75) throughout the year), whereas in Sikkim state it could generate the least with 22 persons at Rs. 65 per day (US$ 1.42). In Manipur, 220 persons could be engaged in merchandizing bamboo shoot products throughout the year at Rs. 60 per day (US$ 1.31), whereas in Meghalaya and Nagaland it could generate employment for 40 and 31 persons, respectively, at Rs. 65 per day (US$ 1.42). Thus, a total of 1258 persons could be engaged fully or partly for their livelihood through the merchandizing of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products in 5 states of the NEH region of India.
29
DISCUSSION
The present investigation could provide an idea on the available fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products consumed as well as sold in the market places of 5 states in the NEH region of India. The highest variety of bamboo shoot products observed in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh was due to the higher diversity of ethnic groups in these two states. Different ethnic groups have different indigenous technical knowledge for the processing of bamboo shoot products, although the principle remains same. Arunachal Pradesh has a moderate population with 1.09 million. Largest sale of bamboo shoot products with highest commercial value in Arunachal Pradesh was due to the moderate population with rich bamboo resource in which ca. 80% of the total population belongs to the rural sector who access the resource. Another reason is the long term availability of fermented products with their high demand. Among the bamboo shoot products, the highest sale of crushedfermented moist bamboo products observed in Arunachal Pradesh was due to its low cost with consumability by almost all tribal communities of the state, except the Monpa tribe. The shorter availability period of roasted whole shoot and whole shoot boil in the market places of the NEH region was due to the short bamboo shoot availability period in the forests/homegardens during the rainy season (MayJuly) and limited market days per week. The largest quantity of fermented-slice bamboo shoot in the NEH region, which was recorded in Manipur, was due to its longest availability period in the market places with higher sale. In spite of the consumption of crushed fermented dry bamboo shoots by almost all the tribal communities in Arunachal Pradesh there was a lower sale which was due to a very high market price. As limited ethnic groups of Nagaland consume crushed fermented bamboo shoot products, there was a low sale of this product in few market places of particular localities of Nagaland. Almost all the ethnic groups of Manipur consume fermented slice bamboo shoots as major food item and as food additives in different dishes, whereas, fermented whole shoot was consumed by three communities. In addition, fermented slice bamboo shoots processed in Manipur are also exported to the neighbouring states of NEH region, like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Assam. Most of the fermented slice bamboo shoots sold in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh was dealt by secondary vendors who purchased and transported it from Manipur due to its better quality and delicacy, which resulted in a higher market price. In Meghalaya, only crushed fermented moist bamboo shoot was observed to be sold by the major three tribal communities, i.e., Khasi, Jaintia and Garo in less quantity compared to the other states of the NEH region, except Nagaland. It may be due to the higher availability of other food/vegetable crops with low price which can substitute costly bamboo shoot products. The unique fermented dry basal portion of tender culm sheath recorded in Nagaland was restricted to the market places of Wokha, Mokokchung and Tuensang
30
B. P. Bhatt et al.
districts. It was used by only 5 tribal communities of the three districts of the state in preparing particular dishes like duck meat, rabbit meat curries, etc. In Nagaland, fermented bamboo shoot products are consumed in large quantities but not through the market places, rather they were processed in household level and preserved for their use throughout the year. In Sikkim, market price of boiled bamboo shoots of narrow bamboo species (Chimonobambusa hookeriana) was higher than that of large species (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and D. giganteus) due to its more delicacy with sweet taste and its less availability in the natural forests as well as home gardens. A higher number of bamboo shoot products available in the market places of Arunachal Pradesh with larger quantity sold for longer periods, at higher market price, fetched higher annual gross income in this state. Though, the market price of few fermented bamboo shoot products sold in Nagaland was very high, but due to its negligible quantity sold in the market places with limited availability period throughout the year, annual gross income was low. Physical efforts as mandays required for merchandizing of all bamboo shoot products in all states of NEH region were more than that of nancial investments made for purchasing fresh shoots, fuelwood cost, transportation charge and purchasing cost of processed bamboo shoot products in case of secondary vendors. Higher net income generated from processed bamboo shoot products in Arunachal Pradesh was due to the higher gross income with comparatively less nancial investment as well as physical efforts made for their commercialisation. Lowest net income generated from this resource in Sikkim was due to its lowest gross income resulted by low market price and availability for a very short period with higher nancial investment and physical efforts made for commercialisation. Due to the large income generated from bamboo shoot products, Arunachal Pradesh alone could employ ca. 945 persons/year, whereas Manipur could employ ca. 220 persons throughout the year. Overall, fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products consumed through the market places in the 5 states of NEH region could support ca. 1258 persons throughout the year on a sustainable basis.
CONCLUSIONS
Through this study, it can be understood that, in addition to the consumption of fresh bamboo shoots, there is a very high commercial value of fermented, roasted and boiled bamboo shoot products which can be used as a tool for the income generation and creating employment opportunities in the states of NEH region of India. Further, proper planning and implementation of small and large scale industries for bamboo shoot processing units in this region may reduce the unemployment problems and improve the socio-economic conditions of the region. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the help and support of tribal communities of all the NEH states, including Sikkim, state for generously providing information during
31
the survey work. Thanks are also due to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi for providing nancial assistance and Director of the Institute for providing facilities to conduct the work.
REFERENCES
1. D. Ohrnberger, The Bamboos of the World. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1999). 2. Y. M. L. Sharma, Bamboos in Asia Pacic Region, in: Bamboo Research in Asia, G. Lessard and A. Chouinard (Eds), pp. 99120. World Publications, Singapore (1980). 3. J. C. Varmah and K. N. Bahadur, Country report and status of research on bamboos in India, Indian Forest Records (Botany) 6, 128 (1980). 4. D. K. Hore, Genetic resources among bamboos of north-eastern India, Journal of Economic Taxonomic Botany 22 (1), 173181 (1998). 5. C. Recht and M. F. Wetterwald, Bamboos. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany (1988) (in German). 6. C. V. Sastry, Bamboos for the 21st Century. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing. Accessible at http://www.inbar.org.sg/timber.htm 7. V. Kleinhenz, M. Gosbee, S. Elsmore, T. W. Lyall, K. Blackburn, K. Harrower and D. J. Midmore, Storage methods for extending shelf life of fresh, edible bamboo shoots (Bambusa oldhamii), Post Harvest Biology and Technology 19, 253264 (2000). 8. K. S. Shi, Z. Y. Li, F. M. Lin and R. Zhang, Chinas Country Report on Forestry. Asia Pacic Forestry Sector Outlook Study, Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/14. Forestry Policy and Planning Division, Rome, Regional Ofce for Asia and the Pacic, Bangkok, FAO, Rome (1997). 9. K. Ueda, Bamboo industry in Japan, present and future, in: Proceedings of the XVII IUFRO World Congress, Division 5, Kyoto, pp. 244255 (1981). 10. B. P. Bhatt, L. B. Singha, K. Singh and M. S. Sachan, Some commercial edible bamboo species of north east India: Production, indigenous uses, cost-benet and management strategies, Bamboo Science and Culture 17 (1), 420 (2003). 11. B. P. Bhatt, L. B. Singha, M. S. Sachan and K. Singh, Commercial edible bamboo species of North Eastern Himalayan region, India: Part I. Young shoot sales, J. Bamboo and Rattan 3 (4), 337364 (2004). 12. Anonymous, State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India Publication, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi (2001). 13. Anonymous, Basis Statistics of North Eastern Region. North Eastern Council Publication, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, New Delhi (2002).
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda grown at Eastern Terai, Nepal

B. N. OLI
Department of Forest Research and Survey, PO Box 3339, Kathmandu, Nepal
AbstractWith a view to prepare biomass tables of Bambusa tulda grown at Belbari, Morang district of Eastern Nepal, a total of 153 culms was selected from 59 clumps. Measurements of diameter at 15 cm of the base (D15 ), vertical height of the culm, green weight of the culm, branches and foliage were taken in the eld. The samples were oven dried in laboratory at Kathmandu. To estimate the biomass, a regression model was developed on the basis of oven dry and green weight. The model used was W = a + b (D 2 L). Based on the oven dry weight, the R 2 values were obtained for culm, branch and foliage components, which were 92, 81 and 83%, respectively. Similarly, R 2 values for culm and foliage components on the basis of green weight were 92 and 82%, respectively. The R 2 values obtained for branch and foliage components were slightly lower as compared to the culm. This equation could be useful in estimating bamboo biomass of managed natural stands or plantations in similar site conditions. Key words: Biomass; bamboo; Bambusa tulda; Nepal.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboos are the most widely used products, as they are used every day by about 2.5 billion people in the world [1]. In Nepal, they are one of the most common plant species grown on farmland [2]. People perceive this species as an alternate to timber tree species. Moreover, it is also considered as an important component of livelihood strategies of the rural households [2]. With its varied uses such as construction materials, woven products, agricultural implements, fodder, vegetables and scaffolding and in stabilizing slip-prone slopes, bamboos are in great demand by the rural households in Nepal. Occurrence of bamboo is more common in the eastern half of the country from Dhaulagiri to the Sikkim border, as high as 4000 m [3]. In Nepal, so far 12 genera and more than 50 species of bamboo have been recorded [4]. Out of the 75 districts of Nepal, 73 are known to have one
E-mail:
bn_oli@yahoo.com
34
B. N. Oli
or more species of bamboo. It has been estimated that the total growing stock of bamboo in Nepal is around 15 million m3 with an approximate biomass value of 1060 million tons [5]. Bambusa tulda is occasionally found in the Terai region of Nepal, especially around the Chitwan district of the Central region. It has strong upright culms, but some are very short crooked, with swollen nodes and with heavy branches. Such culms reach a maximum diameter of 7 cm and a length of 15 m, although they are often smaller. As they are very thick-walled, they are used for construction purposes. Leaves can be used for fodder and the shoots are not edible [3]. Despite the multiple benets obtained from bamboos, limited documentation has been published on the biomass production potential. On the basis of oven dry and green weight, a biomass table of B. nutans subspecies nutans has been prepared [6]. Previous studies focused more on distribution, growth performance and culm production aspects. At 4.5 years age, the average diameter, height and survival of plants at Belbari of Morang district were 4.2 cm, 8.7 m and 67%, respectively [7]. As there is a growing demand of bamboo products in the country, information on the estimation of biomass would be benecial for managing the bamboo resources. This paper records information on biomass of B. tulda, useful to forestry professionals, private growers and other interested parties.
The Department of Forest Research and Survey conducted a trial on establishment and management of bamboo at Belbari, Morang district of eastern Nepal in 1991. B. nutans subspecies nutans (Taru Bans), B. nutans subspecies cupulata (Mal Bans), B. tulda (Japhta Bans), B. balcooa (Dhanu Bans) and Dendrocalamus giganteus (Rakshasi Bans) were planted at Belbari [7]. Of the 5 bamboo species planted, B. tulda was selected for the study. The reason for selecting this species for biomass estimation was its varied use and wide occurrence in Nepal and lack of comprehensive documentation on biomass estimation of the species. The site is located at an altitude of 155 m above sea level (asl) and the soil is loamy to silt loam in nature. There was Sal (Shorea robusta) forest 3 to 4 years before the establishment of the trial. The average annual rainfall is 1737 mm and average maximum and minimum temperature are 30 C and 18.2 C, respectively [8]. The plants produced from single node culm cuttings taken from Sunsari district of eastern Nepal were the source of materials for planting. The cuttings were propagated in the Tarahara nursery located at Sunsari district, before they were taken for planting site at Belbari. Soil heaping was carried out in each clump in 1993 and the oldest culms were cut and removed in the winter of 1996 [7]. The age of the culms was estimated with the help of watchers who have been working at the research plot since its establishment. The age of all the clumps is 12 years, since it was established in 1991. Fiftynine clumps comprising culms of varying age (from 1 to 12 years) and diameter
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda
35
classes (D15 from 4 to 12 cm) were chosen. The total number of culms from each clump was counted. From each clump, at least 2 culms of various age and diameter classes totalling 153 were cut 15 cm from the ground for the study. Measurements of diameter at 15 cm of the base (D15 ), vertical height of the culm, green weight of the culm, branches and foliage were taken in the eld. Seventeen representative culms were selected for sub-samples of culm, branch and foliage. These sub-samples were brought into the laboratory in Kathmandu and oven-dried at 105 C until a constant weight was attained. To convert the fresh weight of culm, branch and foliage components into oven dry weight, sub-samples percentage dry matter values were used. We used the formula dry matter value = ((oven dry weight/fresh weight) 100) to obtain a conversion factor of 0.480, 0.531 and 0.359 for converting fresh weight to oven dry weight of culm, branch and foliage, respectively. Out of 153 datasets, 135 datasets were used to develop the regression equation and the remaining 18 datasets representative of all diameter classes were used for validation purposes. To estimate the biomass, a regression model was developed on the basis of oven dry weight. Biomass tables for culm and foliage were also prepared on the basis of green weight. Of the various models tested with the use of 135 datasets, the model developed was W = a + b (D 2 L), where W is the weight in kg, D is the diameter at 15 cm, L is the vertical length of the culm, and a and b are the regression constants. A prediction error for oven-dried weight of culms, branch and foliage was calculated to measure the validity of the model [10]. Similarly, a prediction error was calculated for green weight of the culm, as follows: prediction error = ((sum of actual weight sum of predicted weight/sum of actual weight) 100).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Dry matter content A total of 53.1% dry matter content was found in the branch of B. tulda. The dry matter content values of culm and foliage are 48 and 35.9%. The dry matter content of culm, branch and foliage components of B. nutans subspecies nutans grown at the same site were 47.3, 41.1 and 38.2%, respectively [6]. The gures of dry matter content of culms and foliage of both the species were close, except for the branches where there is a big difference. Biomass estimation on the basis of oven dry weight Using the regression model of W = a + b (D 2 L), the biomass of all the components (culm, branch and foliage) was calculated. Based on the oven-dried weight, the R 2 values obtained for culm, branch and foliage components were 92,
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B. N. Oli
Table 1. Biomass for culm on the basis of oven dry weight (in kg) D15 Height (m) (cm) 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2.52 2.97 2.68 3.22 3.88 2.84 3.47 4.24 5.15
8 3.72 4.60 5.64 6.84
9 3.97 4.96 6.13 7.48 9.01
10 5.32 6.62 8.12 9.82 11.72
11 7.11 8.76 10.63 12.72 15.03
12 7.60 9.40 11.44 13.72 16.24 19.00
13 10.04 12.25 14.72 17.45 20.44
14 10.68 13.06 15.72 18.66 21.88
15 13.87 16.72 19.87 23.32
16 17.72 21.08 24.76
17 18.72 22.29 26.20
18 19.72 23.50 27.64
All tables provide information on the estimated biomass of the culms, branches and foliage prepared on the basis of oven dry or green weight. The R 2 value of more than 90% shows the good estimation of culm biomass; less than 90% is a less reliable estimation. a = 1.72, b = 0.01, standard error = 1.46, R 2 = 92%. Table 2. Biomass table for branch on the basis of oven dry weight (in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.73 0.84 6 0.77 0.89 1.04 7 0.81 0.95 1.13 1.34 8 1.01 1.21 1.45 1.73 9 1.07 1.29 1.56 1.87 2.22 10 1.38 1.68 2.02 2.41 2.85 11 1.79 2.17 2.60 3.08 3.61 12 1.90 2.31 2.78 3.31 3.89 4.52 13 2.46 2.97 3.54 4.17 4.85 14 2.61 3.16 3.77 4.44 5.18 15 3.34 4.00 4.72 5.52 16 4.23 5.00 5.85 17 4.46 5.28 6.18 18 4.69 5.56 6.51
a = 0.548, b = 0.0023, standard error = 0.61, R 2 = 81%.
81 and 82.5% respectively (Tables 13). The R 2 values for branch and foliage were slightly lower as compared to the culm. The prediction error calculated for oven-dried weight of culms, branch and foliage components were 4, 22 and 19%, respectively. It has been reported that prediction error of less than 15% validates the models [10]. While estimating culm biomass on the basis of oven dry weight, the prediction error is only 4%, which veries the validity of the model. However, it would be better to test the model for estimating biomass in different site conditions. Due to the large variation in branching pattern in similar sized culms of this species, the prediction error became higher (22%) than for the culm and foliage component. The prediction error for foliage was found to be 19%. It is argued that the prediction of leaf yield from biomass equations is less accurate and more site-
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda Table 3. Biomass table for foliage on the basis of oven dry weight (in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.03 0.07 6 0.05 0.09 0.14 7 0.06 0.11 0.17 0.24 8 0.13 0.20 0.28 0.38 9 0.15 0.23 0.32 0.43 0.55 10 0.26 0.36 0.48 0.62 0.77 11 0.40 0.53 0.68 0.85 1.03 12 0.44 0.58 0.75 0.93 1.13 1.35 13 0.63 0.81 1.01 1.23 1.47 14 0.69 0.88 1.09 1.32 1.58 15 0.94 1.17 1.42 1.70 16 1.25 1.52 1.81 17 1.33 1.61 1.93
37
18 1.41 1.71 2.04
a = 0.031, b = 0.0008, standard error = 0.198, R 2 = 82.5%. Table 4. Biomass table for culm on the basis of green weight (in kg) D15 Height (m) (cm) 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5.06 5.89 5.36 6.36 7.58 5.65 6.82 8.24 9.93
8 7.28 8.91 10.83 13.05
9 7.74 9.57 11.74 14.24 17.07
10 10.24 12.65 15.42 18.57 22.08
11 13.55 16.60 20.06 23.93 28.20
12 14.46 17.79 21.56 25.78 30.44 35.55
13 18.97 23.06 27.63 32.68 38.21
14 20.16 24.56 29.48 34.92 40.88
15 26.06 31.33 37.16 43.54
16 33.18 39.40 46.20
17 35.03 41.63 48.87
18 36.88 43.87 51.53
specic than for the components of stem, branch and total tree weight [9]. Biomass tables for culm, branch and foliage components based on oven-dried weight are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Biomass estimation on the basis of oven dry weight Biomass equations are normally prepared on an oven dry weight basis to facilitate comparison with other sites, species and seasons [10]. However, bamboo culms are sold on a fresh weight basis in both the rural and urban areas of Nepal. Therefore, a biomass table for culm based on green weight was also prepared (Table 4). Bamboo leaves are used as fodder in some areas where there is fodder decit. Leaves of B. tulda can be used as fodder [3]. Hence, a biomass table for foliage was also prepared on the basis of green weight (Table 5). Based on the green weight, the R 2 values obtained for culm and foliage components were 92 and 82%, respectively.
38
B. N. Oli
Table 5. Biomass table for foliage on the basis of green weight (in kg) D15 (cm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Height (m) 5 0.08 0.17 6 0.11 0.22 0.35 7 0.14 0.27 0.42 0.60 8 0.32 0.49 0.70 0.94 9 0.37 0.56 0.80 1.07 1.37 10 0.64 0.90 1.20 1.54 1.92 11 0.99 1.32 1.70 2.12 2.58 12 1.09 1.45 1.86 2.32 2.82 3.37 13 1.58 2.02 2.52 3.06 3.66 14 1.71 2.18 2.72 3.30 3.95 15 2.35 2.92 3.55 4.24 16 3.12 3.79 4.52 17 3.32 4.03 4.81 18 3.52 4.27 5.10
The prediction error is only 7% while estimating culm biomass on the basis of green weight. Biomass tables based on green weight for culm and foliage are given in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. It was reported from India that total biomass of planted B. arundinacea (retz.) wild of 3 years age was 8528 kg/ha [11]. The total above ground biomass of D. strictus in India was 422 tons/ha [12]. On the other hand, for B. bambos in India the gure ranges from 122287 tons/ha [13].
APPLICABILITY OF THE TABLES
Considering the wide use of bamboos these days, the biomass tables may provide useful information on above ground biomass to forestry professionals, bamboo growers, forest user groups and other interested parties. Although the biomass estimation is conned to the site condition of Belbari of Morang district, it can be applied to other similar site conditions as well. While estimating culm biomass on the basis of oven dry weight, the R 2 of more than 90% and prediction error of only 4% veries the validity of the model. Similarly, the prediction error of 7% for the biomass estimation of culm on the basis of green weight also veries the validity of the model. This equation could be useful in estimating bamboo biomass of managed natural stands or plantations in similar site conditions. On the other hand, the biomass estimation on the basis of oven dry weight of branch and foliage components gave a higher prediction error than a normal range of within 15%. Therefore, it would be better to test the model for estimating biomass in different site conditions.
Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda
39
REFERENCES
1. J. M. Scurlock, D. C. Dayton and B. Hames, Bamboo: An Overlooked Biomass Resource? ORNL/TM-1999/264, 34 pp. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN (2000). 2. A. N. Das and B. N. Oli, Tree growing practices on farmland: an option for sustaining rural livelihoods, Banko Janakari 11 (2), 812 (2001). 3. C. M. A. Stapleton, Bamboo of Nepal: An Illustrated Guide. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (1994). 4. A. N. Das, Manual of Bamboos in Nepal. A draft report submitted to tree improvement and silviculture component (TISC). TISC, Kathmandu (2002). 5. M. B. Karki and J. B. S. Karki, National Bamboo and Rattan Information Database, Nepal. Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara (1995). 6. B. N. Oli, Biomass estimation of Bambusa nutans subspecies nutans grown at Eastern Terai, Nepal, Banko Janakari 13 (1), 4346 (2003). 7. H. B. Thapa, A. N. Das and B. N. Oli, Growth performance and culm production of bamboo at the Eastern Terai, Nepal, Banko Janakari 8 (1), 1318 (1998). 8. HMG/N, Climatological Records of Nepal 19911994. Department of Hydrology and Meteorology. Kathmandu (1997). 9. T. Satoo and H. Madgwick, Forest Biomass, 150 pp. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk, Den Haag (1982). 10. T. Hawkins, Biomass and volume tables for Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia auriculiformis and Cassia siamea in the Central Bhabar-Terai of Nepal. O. F. I. Occasional Papers No. 33. Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford (1987). 11. N. S. Rao and C. Nagarajaih, Evaluation of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.). Wild for growth and biomass production in dryland ecosystem, MYFOREST 27 (1), 7074 (1991). 12. S. K. Tripathi and K. P. Singh, Productivity and nutrient cycling in recently harvested and mature bamboo savannas in the dry tropics, Journal of Applied Ecology 31 (1), 109124 (1994). 13. P. Shanmughavel and K. Francis, Biomass and nutrient cycling in bamboo (Bambusa bambos) plantations of tropical areas, Biology and Fertility of Soils 23 (4), 431434 (1996).
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of Bambusa balcooa and Bambusa pallida in a 9-year-old jhum fallow
K. ARUNACHALAM , K. UPADHYAYA and A. ARUNACHALAM
Department of Forestry, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli 791109, Arunachal Pradesh, India
AbstractLitter decay and nutrient release rates of leaf and leaf sheath litters of Bambusa balcooa Roxb. and B. pallida Munro were determined using the litter-bag technique in a 9-year-old jhum fallow in the humid tropics of north east India. C concentration was highest in leaf and leaf sheath litters of B. pallida, while N and lignin concentrations were greater in B. balcooa litter. Both leaf and scale leaf litters of B. balcooa and B. pallida showed similar decomposition patterns. The daily decay constants did not differ signicantly between the two litter types and among bamboo species studied. Nonetheless, mass-loss rates during decomposition of the leaf and leaf sheath litters of both the species showed positive correlations with incubation period (the time after burying the samples in the soil). In general, until 120 days of incubation, there was N immobilization and later during the study period rapid release occurred. The release of N from B. pallida is greater than B. balcooa as per KN values. P was initially being immobilized followed by a gradual release after 120 days of litter decomposition in B. balcooa. In B. pallida, no denite pattern was observed. The rate of weight loss and N release showed signicant positive relationships with lignin and N concentrations and lignin/N, C/P and N/P ratios, and negative relationships with C and P concentrations and C/N ratio. However, release rates of P did not show signicant correlations with most chemical compositions of the litter except with initial P concentration, C/P ratio and lignin/N. Key words: Bamboo; decomposition; humid tropics; litter; nitrogen; phosphorus.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboo constitutes one of the dominant secondary successional vegetation types in the majority of the northeast Indian forests. Out of 18 genera and 128 species of bamboos of India [1], Arunachal Pradesh alone harbours 16 genera and 63 species [2]. Abandoned jhum (shifting agriculture) lands and forest clearings
To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: arunachalam_in@fastmail.fm
42
K. Arunachalam et al.
form favourable habitats for bamboos to invade, colonize and establish faster when compared to broadleaved native species [3], resulting in pure and/or mixed bamboo forests. Due to its abundance and faster re-growth, these bamboo species meet a variety of socio-economic and ethno-botanic human needs in the region. Nevertheless, the role of bamboos in soil nutrient cycling in degraded sites has been less studied [4 7], unlike other broadleaved forest tree species [8 10]. Recycled nutrients from decomposing plant litter are one of the main nutrient sources for maintaining growth of forest vegetation [11]. Bamboos in this part of the world are mainly distributed in nutrient poor soils. Hence, the nutrient release from litter decomposition may play an important role in re-establishing the nutrient cycling in nutrient poor soils, particularly when the ecosystem is undergoing recovery following disturbance [12]. The objective of the present study was to determine the rates of decomposition and nutrient release through the leaf and leaf sheath litters of two lower altitude (100 to 600 m above sea level (asl)) bamboos, Bambusa balcooa Roxb. and B. pallida Munro, growing in a 9-year-old jhum fallow in the humid tropics of Arunachal Pradesh, north-eastern India.
Study site The study was conducted in a bamboo forest (9 years old) developed on a fallow agricultural land (1.74 ha) located at an altitude of 132 m above sea level in humid tropics of Arunachal Pradesh (26 28 29 30 N latitude; 91 30 97 30 E longitude), northeastern India. The average annual rainfall of the place was about 1800 mm with mean maximum and minimum air temperatures 33 and 18 C, respectively. At the time of sampling (FebruaryMarch) the average soil temperature recorded was 23 C. The climate was monsoonal with three seasons: winter (OctoberFebruary), spring/summer (MarchMay), monsoon (JuneSeptember). Almost 80% of the total annual rainfall occurs during MaySeptember. The study site was dominated by two fast growing and clump forming bamboo species having average height of 15 to 20 m and a mean culm diameter of 69 cm (Table 1).
Table 1. Characteristics of bamboo species in the study site Species No. of clumps per ha 89 7 137 11 No. of culms per clump 23 6 37 7 Height (m) Average diameter (cm) Clump 470 28 415 23 Culm 92 61
Bambusa balcooa Bambusa pallida
19.6 1.2 15.6 0.8
Values are means SE (n = 5).
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of B. balcooa and B. pallida
43
Soil sampling and analytical procedures Topsoil (010 cm) under the canopy of B. balcooa and B. pallida was collected in bulk during FebruaryMarch, 1999. The soils were sieved through a 2-mm mesh and the initial pH, moisture content (gravimetric method), and concentration of ammonium-N (indophenol blue method) and nitrate-N (phenol disulphonic acid method) were determined within 24 h after sampling. The remaining soil samples were air-dried and analyzed for texture, water holding capacity (WHC), soil organic carbon (SOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and available-P according to standard procedures [13, 14]. The soil was loamy sand and acidic (pH 5.96.5). Water holding capacity and clay content of soils were relatively greater in B. balcooa soil (64% and 9.5%, respectively). On the other hand, soil organic C, total Kjeldahl N and available P were higher in B. pallida soil (1.9%, 0.46%, 10.69 g g1 ). Litter sampling and analytical procedures Freshly fallen foliage litter samples of the two bamboo species were collected from ve randomly selected clumps of each species during FebruaryMarch 1999. The litter was sorted into leaves and leaf sheath and air-dried. Sub samples of litters were oven-dried at 105 C for 24 h in order to determine their dry weights and for moisture correction. Ash content of litter was determined by igniting ground samples in a Mufe furnace at 550 C for 6 h. C content was calculated taking 50% of ash-free weight [14]. Total Kjeldahl N was determined using the semi-micro Kjeldahl procedure and total P was estimated using the molybdenum blue method. Lignin, cellulose and bre contents were also determined [15]. The data given in Table 2 are the mean values of the ve replicated clumps for each species and litter type in the study site. The sorted foliage litter samples from ve clumps of each species were then bulked together to form four categories of samples (2 species 2 litter type) for further study. Air-dried litter samples equivalent to 10 g of oven-dry weight was placed in a nylon litter-bag (1 mm mesh; 15 cm 15 cm). Sixty bags were prepared for each litter fraction of a given species. The bags were equally distributed in ve clusters in the site. In order to avoid disturbances from grazing animals, the bags were buried in the top 05 cm soil layer below the canopy of respective species during March 1999. Five bags per litter type were retrieved at 60 days interval. Each time, the sample from each bag was cleaned of adhering plant parts and soil particles, oven-dried at 105 C for 24 h and weighed. The dried samples were ground and analyzed for N and P using the standard procedures given in Anderson and Ingram [15]. Computation and statistics Organic matter decay constants for the leaf and leaf sheath litters were computed using negative exponential decay model of Olson [16]: X/X0 = exp(kt),
44
Table 2. Initial chemical composition of bamboo litter B. balcooa C (%) N (%) P (%) Lignin (%) Cellulose (%) Fibre (%) C/N Lignin/N N/P C/P Lignin/P Leaf 44.56a (0.138) 1.15a (0.063) 0.031a (0.001) 31.2a (0.339) 28.26a (0.500) 52.08a (0.563) 38.75a 26.96a 37.10a 1437.42a 1006.45a Leaf sheath 46.71b (0.367) 0.34b (0.031) 0.032a (0.003) 25.1b (0.473) 29.63a (0.438) 35.41b (0.491) 137.38b 73.53b 26.25b 1459.69a 784.38b B. pallida Leaf 47.82a (0.129) 0.84a (0.049) 0.023a (0.001) 29.3a (0.375) 30.34a (0.469) 49.01a (0.518) 56.93a 34.52a 14.78a 2079.13b 1273.91c Leaf sheath 48.92b (0.326) 0.34b (0.040) 0.063b (0.002) 20.4b (0.491) 31.05a (0.388) 34.31b (0.339) 143.88b 58.82b 5.40b 776.51c 323.81d
n = 5; Values in parentheses denote SE. In each species, the values with similar letters across leaf and leaf sheath categories are not signicantly different at P < 0.05.
where X is weight remaining at time t, X0 is initial weight and k is the decay rate coefcient. The times required for 50% (t50 ) and 99% (t99 ) decay were calculated as t50 = 0.693/k and t99 = 5/k. The effect of initial litter chemistry and rainfall (data obtained from Doimukh Meteorological Station, which is within 1 km radius of the study site) on the decay rate was tested using the linear regression function, Y = a + bX [17]. Polynomial equations were used to characterize the observed decay pattern [18].
RESULTS
Initial litter chemistry C concentration was about 23% higher in the two litter types of B. pallida, while N concentrations were greater in B. balcooa leaf litter by about 0.3% (Table 2). N concentrations were found to be same in leaf sheath litters of both species. Concentration of P of both the litter types of B. balcooa was similar while it was signicantly different in the litter types of B. pallida showing higher P concentrations in leaf sheath by a difference of 0.040%. Among the species, B. balcooa leaf had a higher P concentration (0.008%), whereas the opposite trend was recorded in case of leaf sheath litter (higher by 0.029%). Lignin concentration was larger in B. balcooa litters, while the C/N ratio was higher in the other species.
Foliage decomposition and nutrient release dynamics of B. balcooa and B. pallida Table 3. Annual dry matter decay constants of leaf and leaf sheath of two bamboo species Decay parameter % mass loss day1 k (year1 ) t50 (days) t99 (days) B. balcooa leaf 0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27 leaf sheath 0.39 5.84 43.31 312.50 B. pallida leaf 0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27
45
leaf sheath 0.40 8.03 31.50 227.27
In general, the leaf sheath had greater C/N and lignin/N ratios. N/P ratio was comparatively higher in leaf samples than in the leaf sheath in both species. Among species, B. balcooa registered greater N/P ratios. Litter decay Both leaf and leaf sheath litter materials of B. balcooa and B. pallida showed similar decay patterns (Fig. 1). However, decomposition rate exhibited a signicant variation in the two species of bamboo, at least up to 180 days of incubation. In B. balcooa, during the initial 120 days of incubation, the rate of decomposition was slow both in leaf (0.14% weight loss day1 ) and leaf sheath (0.15% weight lossday1 ) litter, and then the decay rate continued to increase until the end of the study period. However, in B. pallida the decomposition rate increased rapidly during initial 60 days (0.28% weight loss day1 ), which continued up to 120 days (0.230.33% weight loss day1 ) and then a signicant decrease (0.200.47% weight loss day1 ) was noticed between 120 and 180 days of incubation, afterward both species showed almost similar pattern of decomposition. Nevertheless, the net weight loss rate was almost similar in the two litter types of both the species. The undecomposed litter at the end of the study remained highest in the leaf sheath of B. pallida (7%) and in all other cases, only 3% of the initial mass was remaining at the end of the study. The mean weight loss per day was similar in leaves and leaf sheath of B. balcooa and B. pallida (Table 3). The decay constants (k) did not differ much between the two litter types and among bamboo species studied (Table 3). Nutrient (N and P) dynamics The concentration of N uctuated in the decomposing B. balcooa leaves during the study period. However, in the rest of the samples it increased with time (Fig. 2a). Nevertheless, the N immobilization and release rates were different through time. In general, until 120 days of incubation, there was a tendency of N immobilization and then rapid release occurred, which continued throughout the study period (Fig. 3a). In general, P concentration increased up to 180 days and then decreased rapidly in both species (Fig. 2b). Initially P was immobilized followed by a gradual release
46
Figure 1. Foliage litter decay pattern in two bamboo species.
after 120 days of litter decomposition in B. balcooa and B. pallida. P release patterns of leaf litter and leaf sheath were different (Fig. 3b).
Effect of litter quality on decomposition and nutrient release rates Weight loss and nutrient release rates of different components were correlated with lignin, C, N and P concentrations and ratios of lignin/N and C/P and N/P. We found strong positive correlation of lignin and N concentrations with weight loss and N release rates. However, only P concentration exhibited a signicant positive correlation with P release rate (Table 4). The other litter chemical quality variables like lignin/N, C/N, C/P and N/P either exhibited positive or negative correlation with weight loss and nutrient release.
47
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. N (a) and P (b) concentration (%) during litter decomposition of B. balcooa ((F) leaf, (2) leaf sheath) and B. pallida ((Q) leaf, (E) leaf sheath).
DISCUSSION
Decomposition dynamics Overall, the amount of litter remaining at the end of the study period was 37%. Nevertheless, the pattern of litter decomposition varied between litter types and species. In B. balcooa, the rate of decomposition was slow up to 120 days of incubation. This may be attributed to the time taken by microorganisms to colonize and establish on the litter materials as these litter samples had greater lignin and cellulose contents when compared to B. pallida [19, 20]. During monsoon, i.e., after 60120 days of incubation, the decay rate rose due to greater microbial activity. In this context, several authors have reported faster rate of decomposition during rainy season in the tropics [21]. Relatively higher temperature and moisture conditions during monsoon favoured decomposition of bamboo leaf litter in China
48
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. N (a) and P (b) remaining (% of initial) in B. balcooa ((F) leaf, (2) leaf sheath) and B. pallida ((Q) leaf, (") leaf sheath).
[6] and southern Western Ghats of India [7]. Coincidently, we obtained a signicant relationship between mass loss and rainfall (r = 0.451, df = 19, P < 0.05). The C/N ratio of plant litter has frequently been negatively correlated with the decomposition rates [22, 23]. We also observed such a relationship in this study. Among other litter quality parameters, initial N and lignin concentrations inuenced the litter decay pattern [24 26]. For instance, the faster rate of decay in leaf litter compared to leaf sheath is attributed to greater initial N in the former (Table 2). Contrary to the most of the reports [27, 28], we found a positive correlation between initial lignin concentration and rate of weight loss during decomposition. This suggests that apart from lignin, other quality parameters, such as cellulose and polyphenols, may have more inuence on the decay rate of bamboo litters. For
49
Table 4. Relationships of leaf and scale leaf decomposition rate (% weight loss day1 ) with its initial chemical composition Variable Weight loss versus initial litter quality Lignin (%) C (%) N (%) P (%) Cellulose (%) Fibre (%) Lignin/N C/N C/P N/P Lignin/P N release versus initial litter quality Lignin (%) C (%) N (%) P (%) Cellulose (%) Fibre (%) Lignin/N C/N C/P N/P Lignin/P P release versus initial litter quality Lignin (%) C (%) N (%) P (%) Cellulose (%) Fibre (%) Lignin/N C/N C/P N/P Lignin/P Correlation coefcient (r) 0.907 0.707 0.632 0.980 0.235 0.542 0.421 0.693 0.949 0.754 0.930 0.958 0.720 0.985 0.709 0.824 0.256 0.905 0.991 0.633 0.651 0.108 0.103 0.107 0.328 0.580 0.231 0.368 0.449 0.190 0.601 0.042 0.751 P 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 NS 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 NS 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 NS NS NS NS 0.01 NS NS 0.05 NS 0.01 NS 0.01
NS, not signicant. n = 4 (2 species 2 litter types).
example, Tripathi and Singh [4] found that roots having low cellulose contents decomposed at a faster rate. Nonetheless, we observed no relationship between cellulose content and litter decay rate in this study. Also, as opposed to the contention of Enriquez et al. [29] that the greater the initial P concentration in the litter, the faster would be its decomposition, we observed a negative correlation
50
between initial P and decay rate. This indicates that the decomposer population on bamboo litter was selective to nutrients like N and/or the P levels were low in the litter. Future work needs to test this hypothesis, for a better understanding of the role of P in the regulation of litter decomposition of bamboo residues. The rate of weight loss of bamboo litter in the present study was faster (as indicated by higher annual decay constants, 5.84 to 8.03) compared to those obtained by Tripathi and Singh [4] for bamboo litter (0.432.76) in dry tropical bamboo savannas, and by Lugo and Murphy [30] for tree leaf litter (1.282.04) in a subtropical forest. N and P release The decreasing trend in N concentration from its initial level in the decomposing materials except of B. balcooa leaf may be attributed to leaching. And, the increasing trend in N concentration after 120 days of progressive litter decay as observed in B. balcooa may be attributed to (i) microbial immobilization of N [31 34], (ii) throughfall input of atmospheric-N [35, 36] and (iii) atmospheric N2 -xation [37]. Nevertheless, initial N concentration had a positive correlation with N release rates (Table 4). Tripathi and Singh [4] reported that higher C/N ratios might cause longer immobilization period. This was true for leaf sheath of the two bamboo species (Fig. 2a and 2b) as they, with their greater C/N ratios, showed greater nutrient immobilization during initial stages of litter decomposition as compared to the release rates. Despite variations in N and P concentration in the decomposing litter due to release and/or immobilization, N and P stocks remaining in the litter were positively correlated to its dry mass (r 2 = 0.480.49, P < 0.05). In this context, Cortrufo et al. [38] reported no evidence for any increase in nutrient content in the litter, although the nutrient concentration increased owing to immobilization. In the initial stages of decomposition (0120 days), P release in decomposing litter decreased or increased depending upon the initial P content of litter (Table 4). Shorter or longer P immobilization periods have also been reported by Gosz et al. [39], Berg et al. [40], Stohlgren [41] and Prescott et al. [42] for a variety of litter samples. In this case, the classic pattern of nutrient immobilization followed by release was always more conspicuous for fast decomposing litter than for litter decaying more slowly [43]. This may also be explained by the role of critical P content in non-woody litters, above which P is released, as suggested by Prescott et al. [42], Rustard and Cronan [43] and Eason and Newman [44]. In the present study, initial concentration of P and C/P ratio in litter samples were found to be good predictor of P release as evinced by the signicant positive and negative correlations, respectively (Table 4). However, other litter quality parameters, viz., C/N, lignin/N and N did not show signicant relationships with P release. In this regard, our results with respect to P release especially, are contrary to the observations made by Tripathi and Singh [4] for bamboo litter in a dry tropical savannah in northern India. Such differences could be due to variations in climatic and other parameters
51
like microbial populations, type of microbial species involved in decomposition and residue quality [45]. In general, nutrient immobilization has been a prominent process during the decomposition of bamboo litter. It may be that the microbial population that colonized these litter fractions could not degrade the organic compounds stored in the litter as quickly because the foliage materials were sclerophyllous and lignin and bre contents were also high. Myers et al. [46] reported that organic residues having C/N ratio < 25 are of good quality and they release nutrients at a faster rate compared to low quality residues (C/N > 25). Obviously, the litter fractions used in this study were all of low quality (C/N = 3957 for leaf litter and 137144 for leaf sheath), which may have also inuenced the nutrient dynamics during decomposition.
CONCLUSIONS
This study concludes the following: (i) the leaf and leaf sheath litters of both B. balcooa and B. pallida decomposed at similar decay rates in the humid tropical fallow agricultural land, (ii) N and P release rates differed between the leaf sheath and leaf litter, (iii) P release was faster, showing little difference in decay rate among litter types, whereas N release was rapid only in leaf litter samples, (iv) most of the litter quality parameters showed signicant relationships with weight loss and N release patterns, whereas P release was signicantly correlated only to initial P content and C/P ratio in litter materials, and nally (v) rainfall inuences litter decay and nutrient release. Given the overall comparable rates of decay and nutrient release, the study suggests that both B. balcooa and B. pallida have tremendous potential in regulating soil nutrient pool through faster litter turnover and, therefore, can help in soil nutrient restoration vis--vis ecosystem reconstruction [44]. It is also recommended that studies on the ecological role of bamboos in restoration of degraded sites, particularly in hill slopes, of the humid tropics should address litter decomposition as a key unit for investigation, as this might give some useful information on the patterns and processes of soil nutrient dynamics that would help in understanding the species replacement during secondary succession, and/or to develop useful ecoscientic package for managing bamboo forests in general and jhum fallows in particular. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun, the Council of Scientic and Industrial Research, New Delhi and GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora, India for nancial support. Boyscast fellowship awarded to two of the authors (A.A. and K.A.) is thankfully acknowledged. Thanks are due to Mr. Jadav Saikia who took
52
pains to prepare the litterbags. Special thanks to Mr. Mohan Seetharam, who made some useful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Referee comments helped in improving the quality of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
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20. A. Arunachalam, H. N. Pandey, R. S. Tripathi and K. Maithani, Fine root decomposition and nutrient mineralization patterns in a subtropical humid forest following tree cutting, Forest Ecology and Management 86, 141150 (1996). 21. M. J. Swift, O. W. Heal and J. M. Anderson, Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Blackwell, Oxford (1979). 22. M. J. S. Floate, Decomposition of organic material from hill soils and pastures. II. Comparative studies on the mineralization of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus from plant material and sheep feaces, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2, 173185 (1970). 23. R. L. Edmonds, Litter decomposition and nutrient release in Douglas-r, red alder, western hemlock, and Pacic silver r ecosystems in western Washington, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 10, 327337 (1980). 24. K. Fog, The effect of added nitrogen on the rate of decomposition of organic matter, Biological Review 63, 433462 (1988). 25. K. A. Vogt, D. J. Vogt and J. Bloomeld, Input of organic matter to the soil by the tree roots, in: Plant Roots and Their Environments, H. Persson and B. L. McMichael (Eds), pp. 171190. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1991). 26. J. Bloomeld, K. A. Vogt and D. J. Vogt, Decay rate and substrate quality of ne roots and foliage of two tropical tree species in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico, Plant and Soil 150, 233245 (1993). 27. V. Meentemeyer, Macro-climate and lignin control of decomposition rates, Ecology 59, 465472 (1978). 28. J. M. Blair, Nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus dynamics in decomposing deciduous leaf litter in the southern Appalachians, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 20, 693701 (1988). 29. S. Enriquez, C. M. Duarte and K. Sand-Jensen, Patterns in decomposition rates among photosynthetic organisms: the importance of detritus C: N: P content, Oecologia 94, 457471 (1993). 30. A. E. Lugo and P. M. Murphy, Nutrient dynamics of a Puerto Rican subtropical dry forest, Journal of Tropical Ecology 2, 5572 (1986). 31. J. M. Anderson, The breakdown and decomposition of sweet chest-nut (Castenea sativa Mill) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) leaf litter in two deciduous woodland soils. II. Changes in carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and polyphenol content, Oecologia 12, 275288 (1973). 32. B. Berg and B. Soderstrom, Fungal biomass and nitrogen in decomposing Scots pine needle litter, Soil Biology and Biochemistry 11, 339341 (1979). 33. V. P. Upadhyay and J. S. Singh, Patterns of nutrient immobilization and release in decomposing forest litter in Central Himalaya, India, Journal of Ecology 77, 127146 (1989). 34. P. M. Vitousek and R. L. Sanford, Nutrient cycling in moist tropical forests, Annual of Ecology and Systematics 17, 137167 (1986). 35. K. L. Bocock, Changes in the amount of nitrogen in decomposing leaf litter of sessile oak (Quercus petraca), Journal of Ecology 51, 555566 (1963). 36. D. L. Patterson and G. L. Rolfe, Nutrient dynamics and decomposition of litter fall in oodplain and upland forest of Central Illinois, Forest Science 18, 667681 (1982). 37. T. G. Wood, Field investigations under decomposition of leaves of Eucalyptus delegatensis in relation to environmental factors, Pedobiologia 14, 343371 (1974). 38. M. F. Cotrufo, A. Raschi, M. Lanini and P. Ineson, Decomposition and nutrient dynamics of Quercus pubescens leaf litter in a naturally enriched CO2 meditteranean ecosystem, Functional Ecology 13, 343351 (1999). 39. J. R. Gosz, G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann, Nutrient release from decomposing leaf and branch litter in Hubbard Brook experimental Forest, New Hampshire, Ecological Monograph 43, 173 191 (1973).
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40. B. Berg, H. Staaf and B. Wessen, Decomposition and nutrient release in needle litter from nitrogen-fertilized scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 2, 399415 (1987). 41. T. J. Stohlgren, Litter dynamics in two Sierran mixed conifer forests. II. Nutrient release in decomposing leaf litter, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18, 11361144 (1988). 42. C. Prescott, B. R. Taylor, W. F. J. Parsons, D. M. Durall and D. Parkinson, Nutrient release from decomposing litter in rocky mountain coniferous forests: inuence of nutrient availability, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23, 15761586 (1993). 43. L. E. Rustad and C. S. Cronan, Element loss and retention during litter decay in a red spruce stand in Maine, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18, 947953 (1988). 44. W. R. Eason and E. I. Newman, Rapid loss of phosphorous from dying ryegrass roots: the chemical components involved, Oecologia 84, 359361 (1990). 45. K. Upadhyaya, A. Arunachalam and K. Arunachalam, Effect of bamboo foliage on soil respiration, microbial biomass and N mineralization, Journal of Bamboo and Rattan 3 (2), 169 184 (2004). 46. R. J. K. Myers, C. A. Palm, E. Cuevas, I. U. N. Gunatilleke and M. Brossard, The synchronization of nutrient mineralization and plant nutrient demand, in: The Biological Management of Tropical Soil Fertility, P. L. Woomer and M. J. Swift (Eds), pp. 81116. TSBF-Wiley, New York, NY (1994).
Bamboo-precocious wood composite beams: bending capacity for long-term loading

Y. AMINO
Structural Design and Timber Engineering, Institute of Architectural Sciences, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13/259, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
AbstractSimilar to timbers, bamboo shows creep behaviour under sustained load. However, a remarkable performance is shown during static experiments, the degradation of the performance by the creep must be discussed to secure the utilization over a long period. In order to study the longterm efciency of bamboo laminas reinforcing low-quality precocious wood beams, a series of creep tests was carried out on two types of specimens: bamboopoplar sandwich beams and non-reinforced poplar beams. Under a constant climatic condition, the load on the beams was stepwise increased to observe the behaviour at different load levels. Analyzing the experimental data of the sandwich beams, the long-term admissible load level, as well as the supplemental deformation was studied. In accordance with the Burger body model, their behaviour was analytically interpreted in order to obtain the coefcients characterizing the creep curves. Comparing these coefcients revealed the inuence of bamboo reinforcement on the creep. Key words: Composite; sandwich beam; bamboo; precocious wood; poplar; reinforcement; creep; Burger body.
INTRODUCTION
For the proposed bamboopoplar sandwich beams, the bending properties under the static loading were discussed in the previous study [1, 2] and the efciency of bamboo reinforcement was revealed without regard to the duration of loading. However, real beams are used under long-term loading. The initial deection developed with the load application does not remain constant but increases with time. Numerous examples can be cited in which the time-dependent behaviour of wood is particularly important. The mechanical performance under long-term loading determines the practical loading capacity of timber beams. It is also known that the increase of the additional deection depends on the climatic condition
E-mail:
y.amino@iti.tuwien.ac.at
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surrounding timber beams. High temperature and high humidity amplify the timedependent deection increase. As for the growing districts of bamboo and poplar, these are mainly located between the temperate and the torrid zones. Regarding the utilization of the proposed bamboopoplar sandwich beams in these districts, the study on the time-dependent behaviour under high temperature with high humidity is indispensable. The experiments reported in this paper were planned to study the characteristics of the loading capacity of the sandwich beams due to the duration of loading under a constant climatic condition. In addition to the sandwich beams, non-reinforced poplar beams were also tested under the same condition. The applied load level was stepwise changed to study the correlation between the creep progression and the different load levels. Even if the given load level is very low, creep deection takes place, but the increase of the deection stops with the passage of time. When the load exceeds a certain level inherent for the material, called the creep limit, the deection increases progressively until the beam ruptures. Obtaining this load level is important for the beam design. The creep limit determinates the long-term admissible load on the beam. After determining the creep limit, the creep curves were analyzed on the basis of a generalized theoretical model consisting of two Hookean springs and two Newtonian dashpots. The combination of these elements represents an analogy of the creep deformation. The model interprets the deection evolution of the bamboo poplar beam, computing the inherent parameters of the specimens.
Specimens Nine bamboopoplar sandwich beams and ve non-reinforced poplar beams were prepared for the bending creep tests. Figure 1 illustrates the cross section of these
Figure 1. Cross-section of the specimens for the bending creep tests.
Creep tests of bamboo-precocious wood composite beams
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Table 1. Dimensions and MoE of the specimens for the bending creep tests (measured at 20 C and 60% relative humidity) Actual dimensions (mm) Height Poplar beam 1 2 3 4 5 40.1 40.1 40.1 40.1 40.1 Width 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 720 Span (mm) MoE of components (kN/mm2 ) Top facing Core Bottom facing 9.808 10.090 10.637 11.065 12.141 10.755 11.011 11.956 11.991 6.961 7.592 7.808 8.655 9.281 6.839 7.545 7.927 8.551 9.260 9.187 8.841 6.716 6.567 9.839 10.222 10.836 11.342 12.210 10.828 11.281 11.958 12.023
Sandwich 1st 1 40.1 beam series 2 40.1 3 40.1 4 40.1 5 40.1 2nd 6 40.1 series 7 40.1 8 40.1 9 40.1
beams. The reinforcement of these beams was chosen from the same lot of Moso bamboo laminas used for the prior static bending tests [1, 2]. All the bamboo layers and poplar beams were graded in accordance with their MoE (Modulus of Elasticity). The reinforcement laminas were xed on the top and bottom of poplar beams by epoxy resin adhesive. The exact dimensions and MoE of the specimens are given in Table 1. The room condition during the preparation and grading of the specimens was 20 C in temperature and 60% relative humidity (RH). Under this condition, the average moisture content of the poplar beams was 12.4%. Afterward all the specimens were moved into the test room where constant atmospheric conditions were maintained by the machine air-conditioning. The specimens were kept in this testing condition (25 C, 80% RH) during six weeks at least before the tests in order to stabilize the temperature and moisture content of the materials under the testing condition. The weight of the specimens was periodically measured until the variation disappeared. The average moisture content of the poplar increased to 15.5%. The moisture content of bamboo was ignored, since we paid scant attention to the relationship between the moisture content of the reinforcement and creep behaviour. Testing device The device used for the bending creep tests is schematically illustrated in Fig. 2. The test assembly was built inside the air-conditioned room. Each specimen was placed horizontally on the two supporting points of the device. The distance between the
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Figure 2. Bending creep testing device.
supporting points was 720 mm. A symmetrical load was applied at the third-points of the specimens. At the supporting points and at the loading points, at steel plates protected the surfaces of the specimens in order to minimize the perpendicularto-grain crushing. The loads were applied through the chains stretched between the specimens and the levers located underneath. Each lever carried lead bricks at the free end. By changing the number of bricks, the applied load level was adjusted. The levers amplied and transmitted the load to the chains. The amount of applied load changes due to the rotation of the lever. In order to measure the actual load level, a load cell was xed between each specimen and lever. An electric displacement meter attached at the span centre measured the bending deection of each specimen. A sensor also monitored the temperature and humidity of the test room. Loading condition In order to obtain a relationship between the creep deformation and the different load levels by testing a limited number of specimens, the load level was increased
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Figure 3. Loading condition of the creep tests.
in steps. The appropriateness of this loading method, non-linear viscoelastic superposition, was studied by Mukudai and Taguchi [3]. The loading schedule is presented in Fig. 3. The duration of a load level was decided to be 9 days (216 h) according to the Japanese norm JIS Z2101 [4]. This norm denes that the minimal duration for the creep test must be 200 h. Note that the load values shown in Fig. 3 are approximate ones and slightly different from the actual values measured by the load cells. This experiment was carried out under constant atmospheric conditions (25 C, 80% RH). For the rst step of loading, about 1.2 kN weight was applied on every specimen. The third-points carried half of it, i.e., 0.6 kN. After 9 days, the specimens were unloaded. Following the rst loading, the specimens were kept unloaded for three days, and the recovery of the deection was measured. When the recovery is not complete, the residual deection resulted from the creep is named the permanent deection or the viscous deection. Measuring the permanent deection is needed to determine the parameters of the four elements creep model known as the Burger body. After the period of recovery, the specimens were again loaded with about 1.8 kN weight. At the second loading and after, the load was stepwise increased. About 0.6 kN weight was added every 9 days until the rupture of the specimens. Generally, to compare the creep behaviour of different materials, the applied loads must be proportional to the static strength of each material. In this study, the same loading condition was applied to both types of beams because of the specicity of the testing device. Since the minimal load by this device was about 1.2 kN, we could not reduce the load for the poplar beams.
Deection-load-time correlation Figures 4 and 5 show the typical test results on the poplar beams and on the sandwich beams, respectively. These diagrams illustrate the deection evolving
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Figure 4. Typical deectionloadtime correlation of the poplar beams.
Figure 5. Typical deectionloadtime correlation of the sandwich beams.
with the variation and duration of load. The bold curves represent the deectiontime correlation while the thin curves show the loadtime correlation. As for the poplar beams, all the specimens except one beam failed soon after the third load was applied. Among 9 sandwich beams, 3 specimens failed during the fourth loading. The most resisting specimen bore the fourth loading and failed at the beginning of the fth loading. The other pieces failed at the beginning or in the middle of the third loading. The results show an improvement of creep bending strength by the bamboo reinforcement. Note that this comparison does not mean the increase of the proportion of loading capacity to the static bending strength. Admissible load level for long-term loading From the application of load to the failure, the creep deformation increases inconstantly. It is generally recognized that a creep curve consists of three successive stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. These steps are different from each other in creep rate dened as the speed of deformation increase d/dt. The
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primary creep shows the creep rate d/dt decreasing. The secondary creep indicates the region, following the primary creep, in which the creep evolution is linear (d/dt = constant). Succeeding the secondary creep, the rate d/dt increases in the tertiary creep region. Tertiary creep nally attains the failure. The secondary creep can be considered as a transitional condition between the primary and tertiary creep. When the rate d/dt is positive constant, the creep deformation increases linearly until the tertiary creep starts to develop. While the load is under a certain level, the secondary creep does not take place (d/dt = 0). Once the deformation increase disappears, the creep is stabilized. In this case, the failure will not be caused by the creep progress. The load level under which the secondary creep does not appear is called the creep limit. Obtaining the creep limit is indispensable to dene the admissible load level that assures the longterm loading without failure. Analyzing the creep curves, the creep rates d/dt of the tested specimens can be obtained as the slope of regression lines about their secondary stages. = d t + c. dt (1)
Since the beginning of the secondary stage could not be clearly distinguished, the duration of the secondary creep was supposed uniformly for every specimen: 100 h from the 100th hour after the load application or after the load addition. Figure 6 presents the example of a tested sandwich beam (the same beam in Fig. 5). The load level for each creep rate is also expressed as the form of the stress ratio (S.R.) meaning the proportion of the applied load to the static bending strength. A series of prior static bending tests obtained the referential bending strength: 4.17 kN for the poplar beams and 5.32 kN for the sandwich beams. Note that these referential loads were measured at 60% RH. Under this condition, the water content of poplar was about 12%, which is lower than that of the specimens for the creep tests. On the other hand, the specimens subjected to the creep tests had moisture content of about 15.5%. In this study, the stress ratio means the relation of the creep test load to the static bending strength in the usual room condition. At the rst loading, the average creep rate of the poplar beams was 0.0049 mm/h (avevrage load = 1.31 kN), while the rate of the sandwich beams was 0.0010 mm/h (average load =1.33 kN). The speed of creep progress was decreased to one fth by the bamboo reinforcement. At the second loading, the average creep rate was 0.0173 mm/h (average load = 1.89 kN) for the poplar beams and 0.0064 mm/h (average load = 1.95 kN) for the sandwich beams. The bamboo reinforcement showed the efciency to diminish the creep rate, though the decease of the rate was smaller than that of the rst loading. From the nine tested sandwich beams, the relationship between the creep rate and the stress ratio is illustrated in Fig. 7. By means of the linear regression about all
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Figure 6. Creep curves evolving with the increase of stress ratio (sandwich beam 6 in Fig. 5).
Figure 7. Relationship between the creep rate and the stress ratio (9 sandwich beams).
plotted points in Fig. 7, the creep limit of these beams is approximately given as the intersection of the regression line and the x-axis: Creep limit 1.18 kN 22.1% (in S.R.).
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The long-term admissible stress ratio of the tested beams can be found around this value. Though it is too premature and not our objective to discuss the curve tting on the obtained data from the insufcient number of specimens, the contours of the points distribution were traced on trial by two quadratic functions, in addition to the above linear regression line. Each quadratic curve passes three points situated around the contour and forms a part of envelope enclosing the points. The quadratic contours are described by the following equations: d = 0.00001489(S.R.)2 0.00029952(S.R.) dt 0.00015054, d = 0.00001293(S.R.)2 0.00050035(S.R.) Lower quadratic contour: dt + 0.00469421. Upper quadratic contour: These curves intersect the x-axis (axis of S.R.) at 20.6% and at 22.7%. The creep limit of the tested sandwich beams will be found between these intersections: 20.6% Long-term deection increase In order to maintain the bending deection of beams below the admissible value under the long-term loading, the additional deection produced by the admitted load must be obtained. The sum of the instantaneous deection (time independent deection occurred with load application) and the additional deection by creep gives the long-term deection. The magnication of bending deection after t h loading is expressed by what is called the relative creep comparing the instantaneous deection 0 and the total deection t at t h: Relative creep = t 0 (%). 0 (2) S.R. 22.7%.
In order to obtain the relative creep at the creep limit, the linear regression analysis was applied. It is needless to say that the relative creep must be null, when the beams are free from load. Therefore, the regression line must pass the original point (0, 0). Analyzing the rst loading data of 9 beams in Fig. 8, its regression line passing the original point is Linear regression: 216 0 = 0.6316 S.R., Regression coefcient R 2 = 0.532. 0
When these beams support the creep limit load (S.R. = 22.1%) over a long period, the bending deection must be estimated 14.0% larger than the instantaneous deection 0 .
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Figure 8. Relationship between relative creep and the stress ratio (9 sandwich beams).
INTERPRETATION OF THE CREEP BEHAVIOUR BY THE BURGER BODY MODEL
This paragraph is devoted to the analytical interpretation of the observed timedependent behaviour under low-level load by applying the Burger body. The Burger body is a generalized model explaining the creep behaviour by the combination of two Hookean springs and two Newtonian dashpots (Fig. 9) [5]. This model enables the characterization of the complex behaviour simply by four parameters. The model explains the creep behaviour by the combination of three different deformations indicated in Fig. 10. The total deformation is given as = e + de + v , P e = , ke P 1 et / , de = kde P v = t, rv (3) (4) (5) (6)
in which e = instantaneous elastic deformation, de = delayed elastic deformation (time-dependent elastic deformation), v = viscous deformation (permanent deformation), P = applied load, t = time, ke = Maxwells spring constant, kde = Kelvins spring constant, rde = Kelvins damping constant, = rde /kde = relaxation-time constant and rv = Maxwells damping constant.
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Figure 9. Burgers four-element creep model.
Figure 10. Components of the creep deformation.
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Before applying the model for the interpretation of the acquired data, the conditionality must be veried. The Burger body is only valid for the creep with linear viscoelastic behaviour as shown in equations (4)(6). The linear viscoelasticity can be examined by the comparison of the plural creep curves differing their applied load level. When the proportional relation is found between the load increase and its corresponding deformation increase, the creep behaviour must be linear viscoelastic. Unfortunately, the results of the creep tests did not allow us to observe the linear viscoelastic curves. For example, in Fig. 6, the two curves from the bottom do not show the linear relation. The increase of load between the two curves was too high to conrm the linear viscoelastic behaviour in the rst curve. Nevertheless, it can not be asserted that the results of the rst loading did not demonstrate the linear viscoelasticity, considering that the applied load level was much lower than the theoretical elastic limit of the beams: 1.71 kN for the poplar beams, 2.55 kN for the sandwich beams (these values were obtained on the basis of published data [6, 7]). The following interpretation is carried out, supposing the beams remained linear viscoelastic during the rst loading. Maxwells spring constant ke can be determined by introducing the load and the instantaneous deection of the beams at t = 0 into equation (4). Maxwells damping constant rv is given by equation (6) and the permanent deection. Note that the time introduced in equation (6) must be the time at the removal of the load. The Burger model is not capable to express the gradual recovery of the deformation and simplies that the permanent deformation appears instantly at the load removal. Obtaining Kelvins two constants, kde and , needs equation (5) and a pair of deection-time data. Using the equation twice at times t = 2 h and t = 216 h, the parameters were computed. Table 2 shows the necessary experimental data to compute these four constants and Table 3 presents the results of the computation. The difference between the constants of the poplar beams and those of the sandwich beams in Table 3 explains the inuence of the bamboo reinforcement on the creep behaviour. Considering that the applied load on the poplar beams and that on the sandwich beams was almost the same (P 1.30 kN), Maxwells spring constant ke showed a gain of 12.5% (0.18 to 0.16). This is slightly smaller than the MoE gain computed by using the static values of the specimens listed in Table 1. The lamination theory estimates the average MoE of the sandwich beams as 9769 N/mm2 that is about 120% of the average MoE of the poplar beams (8059 N/mm2 ). This decrease in the spring constant (20% to 12.5%) seems to be due to the increase in moisture content. Average Maxwells damping constant rv of the sandwich beams was 611 kNh/mm, 2.4-times as large as the constant of the poplar beams. A remarkable improvement of recovery ability of the creep deection by the bamboo reinforcement was conrmed. As for the Kelvin body, the relaxation-time constant showed relatively a small gain. The average constant of the sandwich beams was 2.03 h, while that of the
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Table 2. Experimental data necessary for the computation of Burgers constants Load (P , kN) Poplar beams 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.22 1.27 1.34 1.38 1.36 1.26 1.27 1.41 1.36 1.34 1.35 1.34 1.41 1.22 Instantaneous deection (e , mm) 9.7 8.0 8.3 8.1 7.4 8.2 7.2 8.1 7.3 7.1 6.7 7.5 8.3 7.4 Point 1 t (h) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (mm) 10.6 8.5 8.9 9 8.1 8.6 7.8 8.5 7.6 7.6 7.1 7.7 8.8 7.8 Point 2 t (h) 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 (mm) 12.8 9.8 10.2 10.7 9.3 9.5 8.4 9.2 8.3 8.4 7.9 8.5 9.6 8.7 Permanent deection (v , mm) 1.9 0.9 1.0 1.4 0.9 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.6
Sandwich beams
Table 3. Computed Burgers constants of the tested beams Load P (kN) Maxwells spring constant (ke , kN/mm) 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.17 0.19 0.19 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.18 Maxwells damping constant (rv , kNh/mm) 138.7 304.8 289.4 212.9 326.4 254.4 387.9 914.4 1012.3 736.0 483.5 729.0 361.8 435.1 439.2 611.0 Kelvins spring constant (kde , kN/mm) 1.02 1.41 1.49 1.15 1.36 1.28 2.10 1.41 1.76 2.27 1.92 1.69 6.70 2.35 1.74 2.44 Relaxationtime constant ( , h) 1.51 2.54 1.87 1.49 1.70 1.82 1.87 1.83 2.92 2.95 1.63 2.93 0.61 1.15 2.41 2.03
Poplar beams
1 2 3 4 5 Average 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average
1.22 1.27 1.34 1.38 1.36 1.31 1.26 1.27 1.41 1.36 1.34 1.35 1.34 1.41 1.22 1.33
Sandwich beams
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Figure 11. Comparison of the actual creep curves to the theoretical curves by the Burger body (poplar beams).
Figure 12. Comparison of the actual creep curves to the theoretical curves by the Burger body (sandwich beams 15).
poplar beams was 1.82 h. The gain was 11.5%. In contrast, average Kelvins spring constant kde of the sandwich beams gained 91% (2.44 to 1.28). It means that the
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Figure 13. Comparison of the actual creep curves to the theoretical curves by the Burger body (sandwich beams 69).
time-dependent deection de of the sandwich beams was about half as large as that of the poplar beams. Figures 1113 compare the theoretical creep curves with the actual data of the beams. This comparison shows roughly the correspondence of the theoretical curves with the actual data. Without emphasizing the importance of accuracy, the application of the Burger model seems practical to interpret qualitatively the creep behaviour of the beams during the rst loading. This adequacy compensates the supposition of linear viscoelasticity for the incomplete information mentioned previously.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to reveal the efciency of the bamboo reinforcement under long-term loading, the poplar beams and the sandwich beams were subjected to the creep tests. The results are summarized below. Analyzing the creep rate evolution by means of a statistical approximation, the creep limit of the sandwich beams was obtained. With the load lower than this level, these beams will not attain the creep failure. The deection increase of the sandwich beams carrying the load below the creep limit was also estimated. Describing the creep behaviour by four parameters of the Burger body (two springs and two dashpots), the inuence of the bamboo reinforcement was discussed. The comparison of these parameters indicated a remarkable delay and re-
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covery of creep deection by the bamboo reinforcement. It must be noted that both types of beams were tested with the same amount of load and compared disregarding the difference in static bending strength of each material. The adequacy of this comparison is open to question. The long-term behaviour at the same stress ratio remains to be studied. In addition to the above-mentioned question about the loading condition, the next step is to test an adequate number of large scale specimens for the discussion about the statistical reliability of the performance. Acknowledgements This research project was directed by Prof. J. Natterer and Dr. P. Navi, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, and nanced by the Swiss National Science Foundation.
REFERENCES
1. Y. Amino, Conception and feasibility of bamboo precocious wood composite beams, Journal of Bamboo and Rattan 2 (3), 261279 (2003). 2. Y. Amino, Bamboo-precocious wood composite beams: Theoretical prediction of the bending behavior, Journal of Bamboo and Rattan 3 (2), 107122 (2004). 3. J. Mukudai and M. Taguchi, Non-linear viscoelastic behavior and non-linear superposition of wood in bending. I. Non-linear creep behavior and evaluation of stepped-load creep deection at non-linear stress level, Mokuzai Gakkaishi 26 (3), 146158 (1980). 4. Japanese Standards Association, JIS Handbook 24-2. Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo (1998) (in Japanese). 5. J. Bodig and B. A. Jayne, Mechanics of Wood and Wood Composites, reprint edition. Krieger, Malabar, FL (1993). 6. Ringyo Shikenjo, Mokuzai Kogyo Handbook. Maruzen, Tokyo (1982) (in Japanese). 7. J. Sell and F. Kropf, Proprit et Caractristiques des Essences de Bois. Lignum, Zurich (1989).
The inhibition of microbial growth by bamboo vinegar

O. SULAIMAN 1, , R. J. MURPHY 2 , R. HASHIM 1 and C. SANCHIS GRITSCH 2
1 Division
of Bio-Resource, Paper and Coating Technology, School of Industrial Technology, University Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
AbstractThe ability of bamboo vinegar, produced from the pyrolysis of Gigantochloa scortechinii Gamble culms from Kedah, Malaysia, to inhibit the growth of micro-organisms was investigated using a laboratory-based assay. The inhibitory effects of cellulose discs treated with bamboo vinegar at 10%, 50% and 100% (no dilution) concentration on the growth of 7 fungal and 3 bacterial species was investigated. The two higher concentrations of bamboo vinegar showed growth-inhibiting effects against Aureobasidium pullulans (MBRB1-3), Chaetomium globosum (FPRL S70K), all three bacterial species and some effect with the other fungal species except Coriolus versicolor (FPRL 28A). The inhibition of growth followed a dose dependent response with the 100% concentration being the most effective. It is concluded that bamboo vinegar contains compounds that are inhibitory to microbial growth although specic evidence for activity at low concentrations, e.g., below 1% total organic compounds, was not obtained. Key words: Bamboo vinegar; fungi; bacteria; growth inhibition; Gigantochloa scortechinii.
INTRODUCTION
Bamboo vinegar is purported to be used widely in Japan and China for applications in agriculture, medicine, healthcare, chemical manufacture and environment protection [1 5]. There are numerous websites referring to such applications [6 18], especially in traditional medicine, and recently bamboo vinegar has become of quite high commercial interest. However, there are very few studies available that present scientic data on the potentially diverse properties of this material. Bamboo vinegar is obtained during the preliminary stages in the production of bamboo charcoal by smoking bamboo culms at 200 C in the absence of oxygen [19]. The vapour produced from this pyrolysis process is condensed and collected as bamboo vinegar (also known as chikusaku). The charcoaling process is
To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: othman@usm.my
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normally carried on by smoking and heating without oxygen to higher temperatures of around 800 C for about 4 h [19]. The main constituent in bamboo vinegar is water, which comprises about 80 90% by volume [1]. The composition of organic compounds is about 8%, of which about half is acetic acid. A further 200 or so different chemical compounds have also been found in bamboo vinegar [1] and its chemical composition can be divided into 3 main fractions: (1) the acidic fraction, (2) the neutral fraction and (3) the phenolic fraction [20]. Most of the organic components belong to the acidic and phenolic fractions. Wenbiao et al. [21] analysed bamboo vinegar using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and concluded that it is an unstable mixture changing over to time and contains 80% water plus other materials such as organic acids, phenols, ketones, alcohols and aldehydes. The disinfection and sterilization properties ascribed to bamboo vinegar are thought to derive from the presence of ingredients such as benzoquinone and acetic acid [1]. The present research was conducted to assess the anti-microbial properties of bamboo vinegar against fungi and bacteria that have been isolated from soil, wood and bamboo materials. It has been suggested that bamboo vinegar may have value as a wood and bamboo preservative and this study provides results from a laboratory assay for its activity against micro-organisms typically found on such materials.
LB medium (LB) for the bacterial growth assay was prepared using 0.5% sodium chloride, 0.5% yeast extract, 1% tryptone and 1.5% agar. The malt extract medium (MA) for fungal growth assay was prepared with 2% malt extract and 1.5% agar. All media were sterilised by autoclaving at 120 C for 30 min at 15 psi (0.10 N/mm2 )
Table 1. Effect of bamboo vinegar on bacterial growth after 2 days Bacteria Bamboo vinegar concentration (%) 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 Clearing zone diameter (mm from edge of disc) 6.39 3.78 No 3.78 1.78 No 3.39 0.83 No Growth on disk
Ralstonia sp.
No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes
Pseudomonas sp.
Alcaligenes sp.
Control discs: in all cases no clearing zone was observed and growth occurred on the discs.
Inhibition of microbial growth by bamboo vinegar
73
and dispensed into 9-cm-diameter vented Petri dishes to solidify. LB medium was used to grow bacteria, while MA was used to grow fungi. Bamboo vinegar was obtained as a by-product of pyrolysis from Gigantochloa scortechinii culms obtained from Kedah, Malaysia. The bamboo vinegar was about 3 years old and had been stored in a plastic container (it is usual practice for bamboo vinegar to be stored for periods up to several years prior to sale). For the experiments, the bamboo vinegar was used at concentrations of 100%, 50% and 10% diluted with sterile distilled water. Aliquots of 50 l of the different bamboo vinegar concentrations were pipetted onto 15-mm cellulose bio-assay discs (presterilised by -irradiation) in a sterile chamber. Bamboo vinegar was used in its original form without sterilization. Fresh 710-days-old cultures of fungi and bacteria (see Tables 1 and 2) grown on MA and LB medium were mixed with 15 ml sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate. The
Table 2. Effect of bamboo vinegar on fungal growth after 7 days Fungus Type Bamboo vinegar conc.% 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 100 50 10 Clearing zone diameter (mm from edge of disc) No No No No No No No No No 2.6 (0.9) 0.44 (0.17) No No No No No No No No No No Growth on disk*
Gloeophyllum trabeum
Brown rot fungus
Some Some Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No No Yes Slight Yes Yes Some Yes Yes Slight Slight Yes
Coriolus versicolor
White rot fungus
Chaetomium globosom
Soft rot fungus
Aureobasidium pullulans
Stain fungus
Penicillium digitatum
Mould fungus
Aspergillus niger
Mould fungus
Trichoderma viride
Mould fungus
Control discs: in all cases no clearing zone was observed and growth occurred on the discs. Values in parentheses denote standard deviation.
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surface of the cultures was scraped gently with a glass rod to form a spore/cell suspension that was transferred to a sterilised sprayer. The spore/cell suspension was sprayed directly onto the surface of Petri dishes containing 3 replicate bio-assay discs of a given concentration of bamboo vinegar under aseptic conditions ensuring an even coverage of the medium and bio-assay discs. An exception to the use of spore/cell suspension inoculation was made for Coriolus versicolor FPRL 28A due to its particularly leathery mycelium. For this fungus, treated bio-assay discs were placed close to the margin of actively growing colonies. The inoculated plates were incubated at 25 C (bacteria) or 22 C (fungi). The diameter of the clearing zone was measured and recorded at two opposite points around the bio-assay disc after 2 or 7 days of incubation. The clearing zone refers to the distance on the agar surface from the edge of the bio-assay disc that was free of microbial growth. Growth of the micro-organisms on the bio-assay discs themselves was also recorded. Three replicate Petri dishes, each containing 3 bio-assay discs of a single concentration of bamboo vinegar were used for each micro-organism.
In this study, the bio-assay disc method was employed throughout the investigation because it is well established approach to evaluate the effects of antibiotic compounds and micro-biocides. It is possible that bamboo vinegar could also have been evaluated using other methods, such as direct incorporation into the agar media although these sometimes experience difculties with incorporation, mixing, sterilization temperature and precipitation. Table 1 shows the results for growth of bacteria with bamboo vinegar bio-assay discs and Table 2 the equivalent data for the fungi. The clearing zone represents an area on the agar surface adjacent to the edge of the assay disc where inhibition of microbial growth can be recorded due to diffusion of inhibitory compounds from the disc. Potent, mobile inhibitors will exhibit large clearing zones whilst compounds that are either non-inhibitory or have very low aqueous solubility will exhibit small or no clearing zone. In this case, bamboo vinegar is an aqueous composition and it was expected that its components would diffuse to an extent in the agar medium. Interpretation of the relatively small clearing zones observed, even at high concentrations of bamboo vinegar, suggest that it either does not diffuse very rapidly over the 7-day assay period, or its dilution by diffusion into the medium renders it ineffective at inhibiting growth. The bamboo vinegar showed a more general inhibitory effect against the 3 species of bacteria examined than against the seven species of fungi. In all cases, bacteria were inhibited from growing in the vicinity of and on the discs at 100% and 50% bamboo vinegar concentrations. These concentrations represent approximately 4 and 2% concentrations of acetic acid and 4 and 2% of other organic components, respectively, based upon literature values [1]. A 10% bamboo vinegar concentration was not inhibitory (i.e., approximately 0.4% acetic acid and 0.4% other organics). The degree of growth inhibition, as detected by the extent of the clearing zone,
75
Figure 1. Growth of A. pullulans after 7 days on antibiotic assay discs treated with 100% bamboo vinegar and exposed on agar. A distinct clearing zone is visible, indicating inhibition of fungal growth within the zone and on the antibiotic assay disk.
showed a dose-dependant response. Ralstonia sp. was the most inhibited of the bacterial species examined. Only Aureobasidium pullulans of all the fungi examined showed a clearing zone around the discs at bamboo vinegar concentrations of 100% and 50% (Table 2, Fig. 1). No clearing zone was noted at a 10% bamboo vinegar concentration with A. pullulans. The growth inhibition showed a dose-dependent response with the higher concentrations having progressively more extensive clearing zones. The two higher concentrations of bamboo vinegar also prevented growth by A. pullulans and Chaetomium globosum directly on the discs (Figs 1 and 2). Some inhibition of growth on the discs was also observed at the higher bamboo vinegar concentrations with Gloeophyllum trabeum, Penicillinum digitatum, Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma viride (Figs 36). However, with C. versicolor no inhibition of growth on the disc or clearing zones was recorded at any concentration. In general, it is apparent from these results that bamboo vinegar has some inhibitory effects on the growth of several wood and bamboo colonising bacteria and fungi. However, it is also clear that the growth of several important wood/bamboo degrading fungi, and particularly the white rot fungus C. versicolor, is inhibited only mildly, if at all. High concentrations of the bamboo vinegar (e.g., 50% or 100%) are also necessary for expression of the inhibitory effects on microbial growth. This is perhaps not surprising as the bamboo vinegar itself is approximately 80 to 90% water and so any active ingredients are present at relatively low concentration even in the pure, 100% bamboo vinegar. The effective concentrations at reducing
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Figure 2. Growth of C. globosum after 7 days on antibiotic assay discs treated with 100% bamboo vinegar and exposed on agar. No clearing zone, the antibiotic assay disk is free from fungal growth, indicating inhibition by the bamboo vinegar.
Figure 3. Some reduction of G. trabeum growth on the antibiotic assay discs is shown as compared with controls, no clearing zones.
77
Figure 4. Some reduction of P. digitatum growth on the antibiotic assay discs is shown as compared with controls, no clearing zones.
Figure 5. Some reduction of A. niger growth on the antibiotic assay discs is shown as compared with controls, no clearing zones.
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microbial growth, 100% and 50% bamboo vinegar probably contain respectively about 4% or 2% acetic acid and 4% or 2% other organics (including, e.g., phenols, ketones, alcohols, aldehydes, benzoquinone [1]). It appears that the components of bamboo vinegar that are inhibitory to bacterial growth are capable of diffusing some distance away from the assay disc (46 mm) to give clearing zones, as well as inhibiting growth on the disc itself. This contrasted with the situation with the fungi where a clearing zone was recorded only with A. pullulans. These results further support the view that although bamboo vinegar contains aqueous diffusible compounds having some anti-microbial properties, these are not present at high concentrations, as they are not effective at any distance from the discs with six of the seven fungal species examined. It is possible that inhibition of the bacteria by any such compound(s) was enhanced, for example, by the presence of acetic or other organic acids that may lower pH locally and give less favourable general conditions for bacterial growth. Additionally, it is possible that certain compounds in bamboo vinegar could be substrates for fungal metabolism and thus the activity of any anti-fungal compounds present may be masked by such growth promoting compounds. However, on the assay discs, where concentrations of bamboo vinegar were at their highest, it is clear that the growth of most of the micro-organisms studied was inhibited at least to some
Figure 6. Some reduction of T. viride growth on the antibiotic assay discs is shown as compared with controls, no clearing zones.
79
extent and in some cases completely. The results suggest that dilutions of bamboo vinegar of about 50%, which equates to a content of acetic acid and of other organics of approx. 2% each, can deliver growth inhibitory effects. Furthermore, bamboo vinegar was effective at preventing growth on the discs of the important blue-stain in service (in wood products) fungus A. pullulans and of the cellulolytic and soft rot fungus C. globosum. A partial inhibition of growth on the discs was also shown with the mould fungi. Stain and mould fungi have negative effects on the appearance and value of bamboo and wood products in high relative humidity environments (such as the tropics where bamboo products are typically manufactured) and there is some scope for further investigation of the potential of bamboo vinegar to prevent such fungal staining and mould growth. The association of the somewhat limited antimicrobial activity observed with whole bamboo vinegar with its specic individual components and with more general aspects of the whole material such as pH, is the subject of ongoing investigation at our laboratories.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the methods used in this study, concentrations of 100% and 50% bamboo vinegar were found to inhibit the growth of three species of bacteria and, with the exception of C. versicolor, showed some inhibition of fungal growth on the assay discs. The growth of A. pullulans was also inhibited by diffusion of bamboo vinegar components into the agar medium adjacent to the assay disc. Overall, bamboo vinegar did not exhibit strong anti-microbial effects in these experiments, especially when diluted. Some inhibitory effects on the growth of several of the micro-organisms investigated was observed, however, at the highest concentrations examined. Acknowledgements This work was conducted whilst O. S. and R. H. were on sabbatical at Imperial College London and The University Sains Malaysia is thanked for approving their sabbatical study periods. Imperial College London and University Sains Malaysia are gratefully acknowledged for co-sponsoring O. S. R. H. received a Commonwealth Fellowship during the period this work was undertaken and the Association of Commonwealth Universities is gratefully acknowledged for this support. We thank Mr. Zikri, who supplied the bamboo vinegar, David Bacon for the photographic images, and Derek Wallace and Michael Ray for valuable advice and microbial cultures.
REFERENCES
1. F. Jinhe, Bamboo charcoal and bamboo vinegar, NWFP Digest No. 2/02. FAO, Rome (2002).
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2. A. Hasegawa, S. Fukai and M. Morokuma, Effects of bamboo charcoal and bamboo vinegar on growth of agricultural plants, Technical Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture Kagawa University (2000) (abstract). 3. M. Fanping and L. Guifang, A pilot study on the bioaugmentation of bamboo vinegar (BV) for aerobic treatment of domestic sewage, Journal of the Ocean University of Qingdao 33 (6), 886936 (2003). 4. M. Konlee, Update: Neem and Guaifenesin. A case report: treating HIV with neem and guaifenesin, Journal of Immunity 1 (3), 5 (2003). 5. Y. Kimura, S. Suto and M. Tatsuka, Evaluation of carcinogenic/Co-carcinogenic activity of chikusaku-eki, a bamboo charcoal by-product used as a folk remedy, in BALB/c3T3 cells, Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 25 (8), 10261029 (2002). 6. http://www.bamboovinegar.com/ 7. http://www.madeinkorea.com.ph/subcat/sub/products/details/kr110001025.html 8. http://www.parasitecleanse.com/takarapatchingredients.htm 9. http://www.radiantliving.com/wellnesscenter/science.html 10. http://www.radiantliving.com/forhealth.html 11. http://mizobamboo.nic.in/uses.htm 12. http://proven.virtualave.net/kinoing.html 13. http://biz.cnnet.com/trade/sample/room/glcc 14. http://www.madeinkorea.com.ph/subcat/sub/products/kr110001025.html 15. http://www.detox-patches.com/ProductInfo4.htm 16. http://www.maxhealthcenter.com/sapsheet.htm 17. http://www.groupvisionintl.net/documents/TakaraPatch_Ingredients.pdf 18. http://www.jonrich.com/products/bamboo.php 19. T. Nishimura, Apparatus for carbonization production of bamboo charcoal and bamboo pyroligneous vinegar liquid, Fuel and Energy Abstracts 44 (5), 305 (2003). 20. J. Mu, T. Uehara and T. Furuno, Effect of bamboo vinegar on regulation of germination and radicle growth of seed plants, J. Wood Science 49, 262270 (2003). 21. Z. Wenbiao, Y. Liangming, L. Li, Q. Jun and C. Wenzhao, Analysis on bamboo vinegar. Journal of Bamboo Research 20 (4), 2 (2001).
Managing rattan as a common property: a case study of community rattan management in Nepal
S. K. PAUDEL and C. L. CHOWDHARY
INBAR, PO Box 100102-86, Beijing 100102, P. R. China
AbstractRattan is one of the most important non-timber forest products mostly distributed and highly traded in Southeast Asia. Out of 600 species in the world, only 7 species occur in Nepal, but these play a signicant role in the income generation of communities. However, rattan resource base has been depleted signicantly due to overexploitation, immature harvesting and habitat destruction. This paper highlights a case study of community rattan management in the far western development Terai region of Nepal. The income of the community has been increased up to 30 times after the proper management of rattan. Since 1996 the community has earned about US$ 40 000 each year from the rattan sale and a number of community development activities has been carried out with the funds generated. This is an exemplary work to demonstrate how rattan management can bring positive changes on rural economy, natural resources and social capital. Key words: Rattan; community forest user groups; management; costs; benets.
INTRODUCTION
The word rattan was derived from the local Mayan term rotan [1, 2]. It is known as bet in Nepal, India and Bangladesh, and is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word bethas, which means creeper. Rattan palms include 14 genera and about 600 species in the world [3], a great diversity of which is distributed in Southeast Asia. One of the most important problems in the development of rattan sector is its poor management state. Like other non-timber forest products, management of rattan is not an easy task. The natural climbing habit, lack of proper inventory method, sporadic distribution, lack of silvicultural know-how of many species and natural exploitation are the main hurdles of proper management. Additionally, there is not much experience around the world so far. However, Nepal has developed better management of rattan through its community forestry approach. Communitys long To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: spaudel@inbar.int
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S. K. Paudel and C. L. Chowdhary
standing lesson learning with natural rattan has given them rsthand experiences of siliviculture and management. Rattans in Nepal Rattan is considered to be an important non-timber forest product in Nepal. Its existence and value were unknown until the initial survey done by Mr. Chowdhary in 1994 and the detailed survey by Chowdhary and Paudel in 1996 [4]. Ten species of two genera have been reported but only seven species have been identied during the survey by their local and scientic names [5]. The identication and validation was done with the support of Dr. C. Renuka, rattan scientist of Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), India, who visited Nepal in 1999 for this particular purpose [5]. Some of these species were also identied with help of the national herbarium, Kathmandu, Nepal. Calamus tenuis is an endemic and widely distributed species throughout the lowland areas of the country. Table 1 shows the distribution of rattan species in Nepal [6 10]. Rattan has been locally used for various domestic purposes but largely as basketry and furniture. Lack of conservation initiatives, improper management
Table 1. Reported species and their distribution [5] No. 1 Species reported Calamus acanthospathus C. leptospadix Vernacular name Gauri Bet Other report sources [6 9] Distribution Eastern foothills of the country. Reported in Danabari area of Ilam district. Eastern Terai belt nearby marshy land. Reported in Belbari, Morang district. Central mid hills. Reported in Kamletatari, Palpa district. Central to Western mid hills. Reported in Tanahun and Surkhet districts. East to west Terai belt nearby permanent water sources. Major distribution in Bardiya and Kailali districts. Central to Eastern Terai region. Possibly in Chitwan district. Eastern hilly regions.
Dangre Bet
[8, 9]
3 4
C. latifolius C. inermis
Phekre Bet Putali Bet
[7 9] [7]
C. tenuis
Pani Bet
[7]
6 7
C. erectus Plectocomia himalyansis
Tokri Bet Himali Bet
[6] [6, 7]
Species reported by other sources 8 C. gracilis 9 C. khasiyanus 10 C. rotang
[7] [7] [10]
Not recorded Not recorded Not recorded
Community rattan management in Nepal
83
and unscientic non-sustainable harvesting has resulted into degeneration of rattan forests. The resource base has been depleted signicantly over the last few decades [11]. More than 60% of the natural rattan forests have already vanished in different parts of the country. Besides immature collection and over-exploitation by the farmers, habitat destruction is another cause of the depletion of natural rattan [4]. Despite these negative gures, the recent community forestry programme has brought a positive change in the conservation and management of forest resources, including the management of non-timber forest products such as rattan. A few community forest user groups (CFUG) have emphasised rattan as a priority resource to conserve and manage in the community forests. Community based forest management Community forestry is a very popular concept applied in forestry programmes in Nepal that evolved in the 1990s after the establishment of democracy in the country. According to this approach, any part of the state forest can be handed over to the local communities who have access to and have been using the patch of the forest over a long period of time irrespective of political boundary. The community has full authority to make decisions on the issues of forest management and utilization, as well as fund management. The community gets all revenues from the forest and is supposed to spend the income on forestry and local development activities. To date some 1.06 million ha of forestland have been handed over to 13 078 community forestry user groups involving 1.4 million households to the benet of 9 million inhabitants [12].
CASE STUDY: SATI KARNALI CFUG
This paper highlights the case study of Sati Karnali CFUG (community forest user groups), which is a good example of community rattan management in Nepal. About the community Sati Karnali CFUG is located in Kailali district, the far western Terai region of Nepal, about 32 km south from the eastwest highway (Fig. 1). The fairly large community of 623 households manages 298.5 ha of natural forest, 47% of which (170 ha) is covered with natural rattan (C. tenuis) (Fig. 2). The District Forest Ofce handed over the forest to the community in 1994. The forest is an island in the Karnali River, which is one of the biggest rivers in the country [4, 13]. The rattan forest was highly degraded and virtually no management existed until 1992 when the forest was brought under the community forestry regime. The Indian contractors used to harvest rattan every year and the annual revenue never exceeded NRs. 200 000 (US$ 2650). Standing rattan was usually sold to Indian contractors, while there was no systematic mechanism of harvesting. Pre harvesting forest re was the common practice of the harvesting.
84
Figure 1. Sketch map of Sati Forest.
Figure 2. Community rattan forest.
85
Figure 3. Community people busy with rattan harvesting.
Even after the forest was handed over to the community, they continued the previous system for the rst few years until a training course on rattan management took place in 1997. With the support of experts, the community prepared a rattan management plan and divided the rattan forest into six blocks for 5 years rotational harvesting. One of the blocks was maintained for research and conservation purposes. The management plan includes an improved harvesting technique (avoiding preburning) (Fig. 3), simple technique for the removal of leaf-sheaths, air seasoning and storage techniques. The details of pre- and post-harvesting techniques of the previous management system and the changes for improvement are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The present average growing stock of the rattan forest is 19 840 stems/ha. The size of canes (length and diameter) varies according to the site conditions within the forest. The average length of rattan is 6.4 m with a maximum of 22.5 m, and the average diameter of cane is 2.9 cm with a maximum of 6 cm. General features of Sati CFUG are described in Table 4.
MANAGEMENT PLAN
With the support of the rattan experts the community prepared a rattan management plan. The features of the management prescriptions that were recommended in the plan are summarised in Table 5. During the rst rotation (4 years) the yield of rattan was irregular, as a lot of management activities were required and the rattan was
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Table 2. Harvesting and post-harvesting techniques Activity Control ring Details Control ring is a method to burn weeds, spines and agella, which remain in the eld after harvesting rattan. It is carried out just after the harvesting and bundles of rattan are taken out from the eld. It also encourages regeneration of rattan. Rattan should be harvested up to 300 mm above the ground level. However, 150225 mm of stump is preferred for C. tennis. Lower part or basal part of the rattan is abnormally thick, which is considered less important from the commercial point of view. Rattan has sheath over the whole length, which should be removed as soon as harvested. The sheath can be stripped with the help of sickle or by bending the culm. While bending, each bent should be made in the node. Sheath comes from the nodal part of the culm and by bending it can be broken easily and remove. The Tharu people also use a wooden sandal to remove the sheath of rattan. Tip (top of the rattan) is soft and immature, and has no commercial value. Therefore, 450600 mm of the top portion of rattan is generally removed. After the rattan has been harvested, sheath leaves and other derivatives deposited in the eld are removed. They may deter the regeneration to come out. In Sati CFUG, leaf sheath and other residual parts are used for the broom making by the Tharu people. There are no standard rules followed for grading of rattan in the community. Grading is made according to same thickness, colour, length, and other parameters observed. 20 rattans are kept in a bundle. Thick and well quality rattan have a bundle, thin and separate bundle of rattan has separate bundle. The bundle of rattan is dried for 47 days in the full sun. Generally they dry until the moisture content reaches about 25%. Well-seasoned rattan is stored in the storehouse. The storehouse is well aerated and sunny.
Stump height
Removal of leaf sheath
Removal of tip
Collection of the rattan derivatives
Grading
Bundling Seasoning Stocking
heterogeneous according to size and age. However, from the second rotation the yield could be predicted, as the age and size of the rattan in each block were more uniform.
COSTS AND BENEFITS
The forest consists of natural rattan and, therefore, does not require any investments for the regeneration of the resource. Proper protection was enough to restore the growing stock. After the forest fell into their regime in 1994, the community
Community rattan management in Nepal Table 3. Indigenous management system of rattan [5] SN Activity 1 Seed collection Previous system Seeds were not collected in the past except by few individuals for their own private nursery. The seed collection time was generally in Feb.May when it ripens.
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Remarks and improvements The main shortfall was the harvesting age of rattan. They used to harvest in 2 years rotation, when rattan is not able to produce productive seeds. As the rattan seeds are also easily marketable, they were suggested to harvest rattan in four years rotation so as to get productive seeds. They established one rattan nursery in 1997 after receiving training from experts. They used seedlings for planting community lands and surplus they sell to other communities. Soaking seeds in water for 24 hours would give better germination percent. The community practised this method of treatment when they established their own nursery. They required plantation of rattan in some of the areas where natural regeneration was poor. They started enrichment plantation after having their own rattan nursery. The current protection system is highly effective. Community members are committed to stop the illegal harvesting and unmanaged cattle herding. Enrichment plantations of rattan, weeding of unwanted shrubs and plantation of fast growing trees are needed for better rattan growth.
Nursery
Community did not have any nursery. They were fully dependent upon natural regeneration for the revival of rattan forest. They did not have any knowledge on seed treatment. However an owner of private nursery of adjacent village treated seeds by removing epidermis layer and the inner eshy parts. He claimed 70% germination. No plantation carried out previously as the rattan seedlings were not easily available and, if available, were expensive (NRs. 10 per seedling). They have hired forest guards to regularly patrol the forest. In addition, community members also do rotational patrolling in the forest. Not any kinds of silvicultural operations carried out in the past in the rattan forest.
Seed treatment
Rattan plantation
Conservation
Silvicultural operations
made efforts aimed at conservation so as to revive the degraded resource. Each community household participated in rotational patrolling in the beginning, which did not include any direct cost. However, the community later on hired a few forest guards after they had earned money out of the resource selling. The actual costs of rattan management, therefore, mainly involve labour cost of harvesting, leaf sheath removal and transportation. In addition, the regular costs of administration and staff salary could also be counted though these costs are not only for the rattan management but also for the whole community forestry process and
88 Table 3. (Continued) SN Activity 7 Harvesting
Previous system The traditional harvesting system was highly unscientic. The community used to sell green rattan to an Indian contractor at lump sum basis. The contractor employed Indian labour for the harvesting. Local users believed that they did not have basic skills as compared to the Indian labours that they believed were faster and more efcient for this purpose. The general practice was to set re in the rattan forest before the harvesting to avoid insects and to make the harvesting work easy. No post-harvesting and value addition works done in the past.
Remarks and improvements Contracting and hiring Indian labours have signicantly reduced their net income from the rattan. It would be economically benecial to the local community if they harvested rattan by themselves. Additionally it would give employment to the local people. Setting re on rattan forest before the harvesting must be discouraged as it degrades the quality of rattan and destroys regeneration of associated species.
Postharvesting
Post-harvesting would add value of the rattan. Proper drying and oil curing of rattan.
Table 4. Main features of the Sati CFUG [13] Total area of community forest Rattan forest area Number of community households (beneciaries) Start of community forestry Number of rattan forest blocks 298.5 ha 170 ha 623 from 2 VDCs: Naryanpur VDC ward numbers 7, 8 and Dhansingpur VDC ward number 2 1994 6 (the area of the blocks vary from 20 ha to 40 ha with an average area of 30 ha). Block number is 6 very small and only for research purpose Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Bombax ceiba, Albizia lebbek, Albizia procera, Trewia nudiora About 200 per ha Tropical. Temperature ranges from 15 to 43 C with an annual average of 23.7 C Alluvial Leopard, wild boar, python, deer, peacock, jackal Elephant grass, medicinal plants, rattan
Major associated species
Density of associated trees Climate Soil type Fauna Non-wood products
are not included here. The total cost of rattan harvesting, leaf sheath removal and transportation from harvesting site to depot is calculated at NRs 23 per kg of dry rattan [14].
Community rattan management in Nepal Table 5. Management activities Year Year 1
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Activities Demarcation of 5 blocks by using natural boundary or by making re lines. Total harvesting (clear cut) of all the rattan in block 1 and selective harvesting in other blocks. In selective harvesting, only mature rattan above 1.5 m high should be harvested (not more than 25% of the total growing stock). Very old trees in all the blocks should be harvested. Enrichment plantation of Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Trewia nudiora and Bambax ceiba is to be done at the spacing of 6 m. Some of the pocket areas where rattan is sparsely distributed, enrichment plantation should be done at the spacing of 2 m. Weeding is required in block 1 (last years clear-cut area) as the regeneration will be started and weeds might retard the growth. Enrichment plantation of rattan in block 1 in the areas where the natural regeneration is not well. Total harvesting of block 2. Selective harvesting in block 3 and 4 where mature rattans more than 5 feet high would be harvested. The total harvesting should not exceed 25% of the total growing stock. Weeding in block 2 (last years clear-cut area) where natural regeneration is already started in the third year. Enrichment plantation of rattan in block 2 in the areas where nature regeneration is not enhanced. Total harvesting of block 3. Selective harvesting in block 4 where only mature rattan above 5 feet high should be harvested not exceeding 25% of the total growing stock. Weeding and enrichment plantation of rattan in block 3. Total harvesting of rattan in block 4. Weeding and enrichment plantation of rattan in block 4. Total harvesting of rattan in block 5. Selective harvesting of block 6 which is just for the research purpose. Weeding and enrichment plantation of rattan in block 5. Total harvesting in block 1 and block 6. No selective harvesting from the second rotation. Maintenance of block demarcation (re lines).
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4 Year 5
Year 6
On the other hand, there are several benets derived from the rattan. The main benets come from the selling of raw rattan, rattan seeds and seedlings. The annual production of canes is 68 ton (dry weight) per ha. The net benet from 1 ha of rattan forest, without including the cost of administration of community forestry users group, is given in Table 6. Selling at auction at a minimum price of Rs. 30 (US$ 0.40) per kg results in about US$ 2000 per ha annually. The total annual income is 4 to 5 million NRs (about US$ 50 00065 000 per year; Table 7). The income per year is about 2530-times more than in the previous unmanaged condition. A summary of basic data is as follows.
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Table 6. Net benets from 1 ha rattan cane Growing stock per ha (kg) Green weight with leaf sheath (kg) Green weight without leaf sheath (kg) Sundry wt. (green wt 0.3, kg) Average rate per kg Gross benet (NRs) Cost of harvesting per kg (NRs) Total cost for 1 ha (NRs) Net benet (NRs) 19 840 24 600 18 450 5535 30 16 060 3.0 16 600 149 450
Green weight of rattan with leaf sheath is 1.24 kg per cane with a cane height of 6 m. The weight difference of rattan with and without leaf sheath is 25%. The net benet does not include administration costs. The administrative and management costs are assumed to be about 25% of the total income. Table 7. Average net benets per year Item Quantity (average) Rattan cane 32 ha Rattan seeds 125 kg Rattan 1000 seedlings Total US$ 1 = NRs 74. Benet per unit 149 450 300 10 Gross benet (NRs) 4 782 550 37 500 10 000 Administrative costs (NRs) 1 195 640 9375 2500 Net benet (NRs) 3 586 900 28 125 7500 3 622 500 Net benet (US$) 48 470 380 101 48 950
Average annual area of harvesting = 32 ha, annual yield = 58 ton (dry weight), annual income before management NRs 200 000 (US$ 2650), annual income after management = NRs 45 million (US$ 50 00065 000). The community has also a rattan nursery where they produce and sell thousands of seedlings every year at the rate of Rs. 10 (US$ 0.13) per seedling and they also sell rattan seeds at the rate of Rs. 300 (US$ 4.0) per kg. They collect 100150 kg of rattan seeds every year. The community decides on the expenditure of the income. Generally the income is spent on rural infrastructure (school, road, sanitation), rural development programmes (education, health, training, etc.) and other forest development programmes. The community has recently built a big storage hall and an elegant ofce nanced by rattan income [11].
CONCLUSIONS
Management of rattan does not have a long history: therefore, there is little knowledge and experience in this eld so far. However, progress is being made in Nepal, allowing local communities to manage natural resources by their own decisions.
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This has beneted rattan signicantly. The degraded rattan resources in communitymanaged areas have been restored and income has increased considerably. The replication of a similar approach could enhance the management of rattan in other countries as well.
REFERENCES
1. T. C. Whitmore, Palms of Malaya. Oxford University Press, London (1973). 2. Basu, Rattans (canes) in India. Royal Botanical Garden, Calcutta (1992). 3. J. Dranseld, The biology of Asiatic rattans in relation to the rattan trade and conservation, in: The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, H. Synge (Ed.), pp. 179186. Wiley, London (1981). 4. C. L. Chowdhary and S. K. Paudel, Distribution, Availability and Economic Signicance of Rattan in Nepal. A Case Study of Surkhet, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur Districts. Report submitted to ANSAB, Kathmandu (1996). 5. S. K. Paudel, Rattan Species of Nepal. Taxonomical Study of Rattan Along with Its Distribution and Ecology. Report submitted to INBAR via INBAR Nepal (2000). 6. D. Brandis, Indian trees; An Account of Trees, Shrubs, Woody Climbers, Bamboos and Palms, Indigenous or Commonly Cultivated in the British India Empire. Indian Edition, Dehra Dun, 643 pp. (1906) 7. Country Prole Nepal, INBAR News 3 (4) (1996). 8. P. P. Poudyal, Rattan: The Money Plant of Southeast Asia, Nepal Forestry Technical Information Bulletin 11, 7075 (1985). 9. H. Hara, W. T. Stem and L. H. J. Williams, An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. British Museum (Natural History) London (1978). 10. D. Brandis, The Forest Flora of Northwest and Central India. Dehra Dun, 558 pp. (1874) 11. S. K. Paudel, The glory of a common effort: A successful story of community rattan management in Nepal, INBAR News 10 (2) (2003). 12. DoF, Database of Community Forestry. Department of Forestry, Kathmandu (2004). 13. H. B. Thapa, S. K. Paudel and C. L. Chowdhary, Identication, Validation and In-situ Conservation of Rattan in Nepal. Report submitted to INBAR via INBAR Nepal (2000). 14. S. K. Paudel, Community Based Rattan Management Plan for Shiva and Saraswati CFUG in Bardiya District. Report submitted to New Era (Ban Udyam) (2000).
Rural livelihoods on bamboo handicraft making and culm vending in Mvera, Malawi
B. G. SOSOLA-BANDA 1, and F. H. JOHNSEN 2
1 Community
Partnerships for Sustainable Resource Management (COMPASS II) project, Lilongwe, Malawi 2 Noragric, Agricultural University of Norway, PO Box 5001, N-1432 s, Norway
AbstractThe bamboo enterprises involving handicraft making and culm vending in Mvera, Dowa district, Malawi were studied from October to December 2003. The aims of the research were to nd out the contribution of bamboo enterprises to household income and the management practices of the bamboo handicraft makers and bamboo collectors, and the activities of stakeholders in the bamboo industries in Mvera. Eighteen respondents were randomly selected from the bamboo culm vending community for questionnaire survey and stratied random sampling was used to select 74 respondents from bamboo handicraft making villages. Focus groups discussions on issues of bamboo enterprises were conducted in each of the ve villages selected. Perceived stakeholders were consulted to examine their roles in bamboo enterprises. It was found that an average bamboo handicraft maker used 681 bamboo culms per year and an average bamboo culm vendor cut 1146 culms per year. It was also found that an average bamboo handicraft maker obtained MK 20 684 (US$ 190) per year from the cash sales of assorted handicrafts and an average bamboo culm vendor obtained MK 10 833 (US$ 100) per year from bamboo culm cash sales. An average bamboo entrepreneur obtained MK 3251 (US$ 30) from farm cash sales. However, the average bamboo entrepreneur consumed an amount of their own farm produce worth MK 26 679 (US$ 247), which was about 1.5 times as much as average bamboo income of MK 18 417 (US$ 170). All respondents indicated that the income from bamboo enterprise was mainly for household petty cash, i.e., hand-to-mouth consumption. No signicant bamboo management practices were carried out by the entrepreneurs. Bamboos were naturally growing in Thuma Forest Reserve, where most of the bamboos were collected. A few stakeholders in bamboo enterprise and resource management were merely involved in actual promotion of bamboo handicraft industry and actual bamboo management by their policies and interventions. Key words: Bamboo enterprises; handicrafts; livelihood diversication; household income; agricultural production; bamboo management; stakeholders.
To
whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: bsosola@yahoo.com
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B. G. Sosola-Banda and F. H. Johnsen
INTRODUCTION
In Malawi, rural farmers are diversifying in various economic activities, and studies show that natural resource related economic activities are explored to diversify their livelihoods [1]. There is increased use of non-timber forest products by rural farmers in Malawi [2, 3]. Bamboo is one of the natural capitals that are predisposing rural farmers to rural-urban trade [2, 3]. Bamboos in Malawi are not planted but collected from Forest Reserves, e.g., Thambani Forest Reserve and Thuma Forest Reserve. There is still a long way for bamboo plantations to go before they can be used as economic supply of timber for industrial purposes, carbon sequestration sink and export of locally produced handicrafts. As of now, bamboo is a source of subsistence livelihood for poor rural farmers in these areas. Bamboo as a non-timber forest product is currently promoted as stipulated in National Forestry Policy but to a limited scale, as it will be discussed later in the article. Among the issues that the National Forestry Policy is promoting is the participation of local communities in the management of forest resources in Forest Reserves and on customary land [4]. The bamboo industry takes the form of most non-farm rural economies which have been researched to contribute signicantly to household income and others having positive effects on agricultural production [5 7]. The aims of the research were to nd out the contribution of bamboo enterprises to household income and the management practices of the bamboo handicraft makers and bamboo collected, and the activities of stakeholders in the bamboo industry in the study area. Bamboo management in Malawi There is not much research done on bamboos. The national forestry research body, Forestry Research Institute in Malawi (FRIM), is currently working mostly on timber forest research. However, a new focus on non-wood forest products (NWFP) is growing. Despite the growing interest in NWFP, bamboos are not strongly regarded to be potential NWFP [8]. Malawi is not a member of International Network of Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR); hence, no straightforward policies and practices on bamboo resource management and its related enterprise. The studies on production to consumption systems have been carried out in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. Analyses of economic contributions of bamboo to rural households at Mvera have been borrowed from those studies in East Africa. Botanical description of bamboos in Thuma Forest Reserve Three species of bamboo have been found in Malawi. Arundinaria alpina is a montane bamboo, Oreobambos buchwaldi is a submontane bamboo and Oxytenanthera abyssinica is a lowland bamboo in Malawi. O. abyssinica is abundant in Thuma Forest Reserve. It is a medium sized bamboo, widely distributed in eastern Africa. The young culms are usually semi-solid whereas the older culms are almost completely solid. It is the hardiest of the three commonly occurring East African bamboo species. O. abyssinica is common at the medium altitude in semi-deciduous
Rural livelihoods on bamboo handicraft making and culm vending in Malawi
95
dry forest formation. Eggerling and Dale (cited in Ref. [9]), reported that owering in O. abyssinica occurs in large areas about once every 7 years. After owering, the clumps die and new shoots appear after a year. Observations by Williamson (1974) in Malawi [9], however, indicated that owering took place sporadically or in a gregarious manner after which the plants died. Thuma Forest Reserve Thuma Forest Reserve, 13 45 to 13 57 S and 34 09 to 34 16 E, lies in Lilongwe and Salima districts. The Forest Reserve is situated to the north-east of Lilongwe on the escarpment of the Great Rift Valley. It is some 50 km away from Lilongwe Capital City and covers a total area of 16 395 ha [10]. Thuma Forest Reserve was gazetted as a protected forest reserve in 1926. The Department of Forestry manages and administers the Reserve under the 1997 Forest Act. There is no organised bamboo management from either the DFO or community side. Illegal tree and bamboo cutting were rst reported in 1973 from Thuma Forest Reserve. Bamboos (O. abyssinica) are very abundant and farmers from Madaula and Chilombo villages extract bamboos from the Forest Reserve.
METHODOLOGY
The research study took place from October to December 2003 in Mvera in ve villages, Chilombo, Dzuwa, Katengeza, Mpanje and Mulenga. Four villages were selected to represent villages that are engaged in bamboo handicraft making and its related trade and these were Mpanje, Katengeza, Dzuwa and Mulenga. Chilombo village was chosen to represent villages extracting bamboos from Thuma Forest Reserve. From each bamboo village site, respondents were selected from workshop clubs registered in the particular village engaged in bamboo handicraft making and a bamboo-extracting village, as shown in Table 1. The sample size depended on the size of the workshop, period of an individual in bamboo enterprise and age of the workshop in bamboo industry. Focus group discussions Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in all villages to understand the dynamics of bamboo enterprises and management practices. Both males and females attended these FGDs, although only men patronised bamboo workshops. Mpanje provided three FGDs because of its diversity of bamboo enterprises and the presence of a women bamboo handicraft group. The last four FGDs were conducted in each of the remaining four villages. The communities were interviewed on the existing structures and dynamics of production to consumption systems of bamboo enterprises and their participation in bamboo resource management. A checklist was used to run the focus group discussions. The checklist addressed the
96 Table 1. Sampling prole by village Village Katengeza Mulenga Chilombo Mpanje Dzuwa Chipala women (Mpanje) Total
* Bf
No. of workshop clubs 5 1 0 3 4 1 14
Sample size 30 9 18 20 10 9 96
Sex M M M and F M M F
Type of bamboo enterprise Bb, Bf, Bcv Bf, Bb Bcv Bf, Bb Bf, Bb Bf, Bb
= bamboo furniture, Bb = bamboo basketry, Bcv = bamboo culm vending.
following issues; historical trends of bamboo enterprise, conicts and negotiations with Forestry Department guards at Thuma Forest Reserve, resource mapping of bamboo population dynamics, marketing of bamboo handicrafts, organisational structure of the community bamboo workshop clubs, perception of the handicraft producers on the effectiveness and efciency of the potential stakeholders and their possible interventions on the enterprise production. The identication of stakeholders in bamboo enterprises and their level of agency in promoting bamboo enterprises and resource management were also conducted. Questionnaire survey The key informants, i.e., the heads of bamboo workshops, Forestry Department Headquarters and Salima District Forestry Ofce participated in developing key issues of the questionnaire. The questionnaire method extracted the respondents demographic characteristics and performances in bamboo enterprise and agricultural production. Individual amounts of bamboo used for handicrafts and extracted or harvested from Thuma Forest Reserve were collected together with their respective incomes. Other household incomes from non-natural capital in the one hand and natural capital in the other hand were also collected. Types of bamboo enterprises undertaken by individual farmers were identied as well as other natural capital and non-natural activities. This method helped quantify the economic potential of bamboo enterprise to supplement agricultural production as a viable rural non-farm income. The household survey was aimed at collecting both categorical data and numerical data. Data analysis The 92 cases were entered in a SPSS 11.0 version spreadsheet. The categorical data were coded. Descriptive statistics were computed from the entered variables. Chisquare and t-signicance tests were used to nd the signicance of dependence
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and homogeneity, and difference, respectively, between some of the variables. Tests were conducted to nd whether (1) there were no signicant differences between the own farm consumption (crop) income and bamboo enterprise cash sales, (2) there were no signicant differences between the bamboo entrepreneurs farm cash income and bamboo enterprise cash sales, (3) the perception of bamboo availability was not dependent on the proximity of the entrepreneur to Thuma Forest Reserve and (4) the commitment to bamboo enterprise during rainy season was not different among those doing bamboo handicraft and bamboo culm vending enterprises.
Bamboo enterprises It was found that the bamboo enterprises comprised bamboo culm collecting from Thuma Forest Reserve and bamboo handicraft making, which involves mainly furniture and partially baskets. Furniture handicrafts comprise all furniture-like items, such as sofa sets, table chairs, dining table, coffee tables, wardrobes, beds, shelves, bar stools, television stands, cupboards, etc. Basket handicrafts comprise winnows, our baskets, fruit bowls, shopping baskets, washing baskets, etc. Bamboo furniture making contributed the higher portion of annual bamboos used for handicraft. There was higher turnover in furniture making than basket making. Consequently, more people were indulged in furniture making than basket making. It should be pointed out that bamboo handicraft requires a complementary raw material locally called chipapati. Chipapati is a creeping stem plant that is harvested and used for weaving processed bamboos in construction of handicrafts. However, details on chipapati were beyond the scope of the study. Bamboos collected from Thuma Forest Reserve serve two major purposes and these purposes determine the type of bamboo. Hollow bamboos (tsungwa) are used for structural construction of farms structures, houses, fences, etc. Solid bamboos (malailosi) are used for handicraft making. Extraction and utilization of bamboos Hollow bamboos occupied a higher portion of the whole bamboo collected from Thuma Forest Reserve than solid bamboos. It was found that an average handicraft maker used 882 bamboo culms per year and an average bamboo vendor collected 7031 bamboo culms per year. This shows that an average bamboo handicraft maker only consumed approximately 13% of the total bamboo collected by the counterpart collector. The remaining part was sold to estate farmers, intra- and inter-village trade and urban dwellers for building farm structures and fences. The detailed explanation of quantities for the remaining part was beyond the scope of the study. It is also shown that the bamboo culm vending mainly comprises collecting hollow
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Table 2. Number of bamboo culms used and cut and entrepreneurs involved by villages Village Bamboo culms used (handicrafts and baskets) N n Annual Average amount amount 29 22 9 8 3 71 31 24 10 9 18 92 36 640 6886 7750 10 826 546 62 648 1182 (1263) 287 (313) 775 (861) 1203 (1353) 30 (182) 681 (882) Bamboo culms cut N 2 0 1 0 13 15 n 31 24 10 9 18 92 Annual amount 2360 0 18 000 0 85 108 105 468 Average amount 76 (1180) 0 (0) 1800 (18000) 0 (0) 4728 (5006) 1146 (7031)
Katengeza Mpanje Dzuwa Mulenga Chilombo Overall
N = Number of cases which actually engaged in the particular activity, n = total. Values in parentheses are averages for actual cases engaged in the particular activity.
bamboo than solid bamboos. Consequently, bamboo vendors are more reliant on hollow bamboos rather than solid ones. The handicraft makers are reliant on the solid bamboos because of value addition. Reliance on different types of bamboo by the two bamboo entrepreneurs would affect the type of bamboo variety to be planted when bamboo plantation intervention is promoted. The bamboo culm vendors would prefer more hollow bamboos than solid ones in their homestead gardens. The handicraft makers would prefer the opposite. However, what makes some culms hollow and others solid was unexplained and unknown among the local people. Studies show that there is only one species in Thuma Forest Reserve. The bamboo culm vendors claimed that the hollow bamboos were more abundant than the solid bamboos. That is why hollow bamboos and solid bamboos were sold at MK 3050 per 25-culm bundle and MK 120 per 25-culm bundle, respectively. Table 2 shows the details of quantities of bamboo culms used for handicraft making and cut in the surveyed villages and the actual number of respondents. Although Katengeza village is considered as the centre of handicraft making in Mvera, it ranked second in the average annual amount of bamboos used per individual to Mulenga village. These two villages were quite ahead of the overall annual average of bamboo culms per individual. Chilombo had the lowest average annual bamboo used per individual because it is mainly a bamboo culm collecting and vending community. Mpanje was the second lowest in average bamboo usage because it included the women group of eight individuals who were currently undermanufacturing due to capital constraints. Bamboo enterprises and household income All households interviewed were smallholder farmers with average land holding of approximately 3 acres (1.2 ha). The major crops grown in the area are maize (staple food), groundnuts, sweet potatoes and cassava. Table 3 shows the average gross incomes for all the income sources.
Rural livelihoods on bamboo handicraft making and culm vending in Malawi Table 3. Annual household cash incomes Whole sample Gross cash farm income Crop cash sales Livestock cash sales Total farm cash sales Own-farm consumption Maize Sweet potato Cassava Groundnuts Total own-farm consumption Bamboo cash sales Handicraft making Bamboo culm vending Bamboo stakes Handicraft ganyu casual labour Total bamboo enterprise income Other non-farm income General trading Firewood and charcoal Non-farm wage Total non-farm income 92 92 92 92 92 92 92 92 69 18 2 20 87 92 92 92 92 Total annual amount (MK) 222 830 76 235 299 065 1 077 360 189 600 10 400 1 177 069 2 454 429 1 427 180 195 000 27 500 44 710 1 694 390 55 013 22 600 9500 87 113
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Average amount (MK) for whole sample (n = 92) 2422 829 3251 11 710 2061 113 12 794 26 679 20 684 10 833 13 750 2236 19 476 598 246 103 947
Crop cash sales comprise maize, groundnuts, cassava and sweet potato sales. Livestock cash sales comprise live goat, pig and chicken sales. MK 108 = US$ 1 at the time of research.
By comparing the average cash incomes from bamboo enterprise sales and other household cash incomes shown in Table 3, bamboo handicraft making and bamboo culm vending contribute a considerable economic sustenance of the livelihoods of these craftsmen and bamboo vendors, respectively. A two-sample t-test showed that there is signicant difference in the income contribution to household cash incomes between the bamboo enterprise income and farm cash sales (t-value = 6.18, d.f. = 106, P < 0.001). Assuming that there were no bamboos in the area and that the community was not deriving a livelihood from bamboos, they would have been more vulnerable. This would be aggravated with declining agricultural production and no presence of other perceived productive resources in the area. In this analysis, farm production for own household consumption was not considered as household cash income (cf., Ref. [11]). However, if own farm consumption would be accounted for, there would be a different interpretation of household incomes. The accounting for own farm consumption becomes very important in poverty analysis as opposed to a simple cash income analysis. When own farm consumption is monetised based on average crop produce market prices during
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20022003 growing season, average crop own-farm consumption was found to be MK 26 679 (US$ 247). A two-sample t-test showed that the own farm consumption income was signicantly greater than bamboo enterprise income at = 0.05 (t-value = 2.26, d.f. = 176, P = 0.013). The crops considered in the own farm consumption analysis were maize, sweet potatoes, cassava and groundnuts; their corresponding market prices are MK 16/kg, MK 10/kg and MK 55/kg, respectively [11]. Own-farm consumption would be seen to contribute more to household income when other crops and livestock consumed were taken into account. The inclusion of own-farm consumption should however not undermine the economic contribution of household cash incomes, which are more important for household petty cash in monetised markets than in barter markets. Therefore, the signicance of own-farm consumption should not overrule the policy makers in biasing on agricultural production interventions over non-farm activities hence affecting local peoples pathway out of poverty [12]. Bamboo management and domestication During focus group discussions and household surveys, it was found that only 10 individuals had homestead bamboos from which they could derive bamboos for their own uses. The total area of managed homestead bamboos was 11 acres. Traditionally, the bamboo users have not been domesticating bamboos for household use. The natural replenishment has been the only means that has provided a continuity of bamboo enterprise for decades. The agronomy of bamboo indicates that bamboo rhizomes are the main propagules. It was found that there were very few bamboo clumps in crop elds and customary land because they have been over-exploited. The other contribution to depletion of bamboos in the villages is the owering of bamboos. Bamboos in the area owered in 1974 and they died once they owered. It was also reported by some bamboo handicraft workers that bamboos owered in 2003 when the eldwork was being carried out. The bamboo handicraft manufacturers did not indicate willingness to plant bamboos for handicraft production. Others indicated that bamboos would not do well in crop elds because of unfavourable soil type for bamboos. The owering of bamboos was perceived to be a threat to the growing bamboo enterprises in the area. Thuma Forest Reserve does not carry out co-management of bamboos with the bamboo extracting communities. Thuma Forest Reserve itself does not have management strategies for bamboo apart from control of harmful bushres and restricted entry to collect bamboos. Much as the entry fee is used as a restrictive economic instrument, it raises revenue for the Salima District Forestry Ofce. The bamboo entrepreneurs showed interest in the co-management of bamboo resources in Thuma Forest Reserve and customary land, domestication of bamboo planting and penalties for violation of entry into Thuma Forest Reserve to manage the bamboo resources. It was found that 45% of bamboo users and vendors perceived bamboo availability in Thuma Forest Reserve to be abundant (Table 4). A chi-square test showed that
Rural livelihoods on bamboo handicraft making and culm vending in Malawi Table 4. Perception of bamboo availability in Thuma Forest Reserve Village Katengeza Mpanje Dzuwa Mulenga Chilombo Total Perception of bamboo availability Abundant Moderate 13 13 6 4 5 41 15 7 3 5 8 38
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Scarce 3 4 1 0 5 13
Total 31 24 10 9 18 92
the proximity to Thuma Forest reserve signicantly determined the perception of 0.05), i.e., the bamboo stem the bamboo entrepreneur ( 2 = 4.5, d.f. = 2, P vendors of Chilombo village perceived that the bamboos were scarce in Thuma Forest Reserve, since they are closer to the source than the rest of the villages. Markets Informal monetised markets were observed to exist in both bamboo collecting and utilizing communities. Most households required money to obtain basic human economic needs. Two levels of markets were created by bamboo enterprises. Both intra- and inter-village markets for bamboo culms and related raw materials were common. Bamboo vendors got orders from bamboo handicraft makers to collect solid bamboo bundles for them. A bundle of solid bamboo was sold at MK 120 (US$ 1.10). Each bundle of bamboo contains 2025 culms of solid bamboos. A bundle of hollow bamboos for structural construction was sold at MK 50 (US$ 0.46) at the main road and MK 30 at the collecting village (Chilombo). Chipapati markets were also observed to take place. Some people collected chipapati and sold it to the handicraft makers. A standard round (nkhata) of chipapati costs MK 2 and a huge round costs MK 20. Most of these chipapati vendors did not participate in handicraft making and bamboo vending though there might be some intersections. It was found that a sofa set of two single chairs and one double chair costs MK 2500 (US$ 23), a coffee table costs MK 500 (US$ 5) and stools MK 400 (US$ 4). A sofa set consumed two bundles of solid bamboo culms. Baskets cost MK 100 on average, depending on the size. A sofa set consumed 200 rounds of chipapati and a coffee table consumes 40 rounds. It was found that an average bamboo handicraft maker used 2143 rounds (214 kg) of chipapati per year (an average round weighs 100 g). Labour regimes and gender Self-employment, family labour and hired labour were the types of labour force employed in bamboo enterprises. Self-employment was found to be the more used
102 Table 5. Labour regimes by village Village Katengeza Mpange Dzuwa Mulenga Chilombo Total
Labour regime Self employment 29 22 10 9 12 82
Ganyu 23 10 8 7 2 50
Family labour 2 7 3 1 6 19
labour regime. 89% of the interviewed indicated that they were self-employed in the enterprise, and 54% indicated that they used hired labour in their enterprise. This means that there is a labour market in bamboo enterprises. These informal employment opportunities help solve the income inequality [12]. Table 5 shows detailed labour regimes in specic bamboo enterprise by villages. Male school children often nd piece works at the workshops, which are used for their petty cash needs, e.g., buying food at break periods, participating in social tea clubs and buying clothes. This lifts the burden on their parents whose incomes are very low and uncertain. It was also shown that furniture making contributed to the highest portion of casual labour provision as opposed to bamboo vending, which indicated low opportunities for casual labour. These casual labour opportunities were highest in Katengeza village and lowest in Chilombo village. Of the respondents, 20% indicated that family labour is used in the bamboo enterprises. The family labour meant that a member of the household was obliged to participate in the particular bamboo enterprise. Use of family labour was highly pronounced in Chilombo village. Women and children were also involved in extracting bamboos from Thuma Forest Reserve and selling them. Access to Thuma Forest Reserve was found to be gender-neutral in Chilombo village, unlike in all furniture workshops which were dominated by men. Seasonality of labour Involvement of bamboo enterprises reached climax during the dry season. On average, bamboo enterprises had annual active period of 810 months. The remaining 24 months were devoted to rain-fed farming. However, a chi-square test showed that there were signicant differences of commitment to bamboo enterprises during rainy season among the villages ( 2 = 33.7, d.f. = 8, P < 0.001). It was found that in Chilombo village mostly bamboo culm vendors had less commitment to their culm collecting enterprise during rainy season than the bamboo handicraft making villages. One of the factors contributing to less commitment was that the Lilongwe River became impassable due to heavy ows. They were also afraid of elephants in Thuma Forest Reserve. About 32% of the bamboo
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entrepreneurs committed all of their time, capital and labour to farming during the rain season. Only 8% of the respondents admitted to commit totally to bamboo enterprises, i.e., working full time on the particular bamboo enterprise. Some bamboo entrepreneurs ventured into partial commitment to bamboo enterprise in DecemberMarch, because it is the leanest period in food security in Malawi. Therefore, bamboo entrepreneurs engaged on part-time basis to provide income for their households. Bamboo furniture makers divert to production of baskets and small furniture for quick cash. Bamboo handicraft manufacturing during rainy season relies on the bamboo stocks stored during dry season. Bamboo workshops Bamboo workshops acted as a forum for sharing ideas and experiences in craftwork. The workshop club paid MK 2000 (US$ 19) as annual trading tax to Dowa District Council, which collected it biannually. The workshops standardized the quality of the handicraft to create commodity uniformity. A market price was set by the workshop for each commodity manufactured. The owner of the commodity was only involved if the buyer wanted a bargain below the recommended threshold. Usually the owner agreed with the bargain if he needed the money to cater for his urgent household needs. When one craftsman received a quotation or order in bulk quantities, he hired casual labour (ganyu) from his fellow craftsmen to meet the requirement within agreed period. This is some sort of reciprocity in labour. However, it was found that social cohesion in informal money loans within the clubs did not exist. This was because few households could afford to lend out their household income. Access to formal credit was a problem because handicraft market was seasonal and exogenously dependent on urban dwellers willingness to pay for the commodities. Handicraft and bamboo culm buyers The bamboo handicraft enterprise heavily depends on the external buyers who are urban dwellers and owners of entertainment places. Another group of buyers are tourists and/or foreigners who buy the handicrafts as Malawian souvenirs. The bamboo culm vending for structural construction also depends on estate farmers and urban dwellers. The urban dwellers use the bamboo culms for constructing grass fences. If the taste of urban dwellers and other handicrafts buyers for handicrafts plummets, the future of the livelihoods on handicrafts would be jeopardized. However, the demographic and economic growth of Lilongwe and urban areas would create demand for bamboo handicrafts. It was observed during FGDs that some of the buyers come from areas as far as Mzuzu, Blantyre and Mchinji, 420 km, 300 km and 200 from Mvera, respectively.
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Stakeholders in bamboo enterprise and management Salima District Forestry Ofce levied entry fees to intruders into Thuma Forest Reserve. The Forest Guards sometimes conscated bamboos illegally collected from Thuma Forest Reserve. The bamboo entrepreneurs in all villages expressed resentment to the research team as being camouaged Forest Guards. This sentiment expressed some illegal extraction of bamboos from Thuma Forest Reserve. The Forest Guards also helped in the general management of bamboos in Thuma Forest Reserve by use of controlled bushres and rotational extraction of bamboos. The Forest Guards assign sites of possible extraction where there are overgrown bamboos and restrict areas where they are young and green. The Wildlife Action Group also maintains the security of bamboo collectors by controlling the route of elephants that are reported to be threatening lives of bamboo collecters. Wildlife Action Group also promotes Thuma Forest Reserve as a tourist site for viewing African bamboos (O. abyssinica). Malawi Chambers of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) invite and encourage the bamboo manufacturers to exhibit their products at the trade fairs. However, local craftsmen expressed dissatisfaction with the arrangements for trade fairs. They complained of high participation fees that were prohibitive for local entrepreneurs. Appropriate Technology Training Unit for Income Generating Activities (ATTIGA) is one of the two technology centres in the Ministry of Gender And Community Services. They trained Chipala women group in bamboo handicraft making through use of mechanical devices, such as bending vice, chemical treatment of bamboo and planting of bamboo plots. ATTIGA had only worked with the Chipala women group within the study area. Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM) is one the potential external stakeholders that was concerned with research in management of bamboos as stipulated in National Forestry Policy on Non Timber Forest Products. Since bamboo is an under-researched plant in Malawi, FRIM would play a leading role in understanding the biology of bamboos hence better domestication and management of bamboo in individual plots and protected reserves, respectively. The Department of Forestry had also developed a proposal for bamboo resource management and submitted it to potential donors at the time of this research. This shows that research in bamboo and its related uses is gaining ground in Malawi. This would improve the information on bamboo resources and their impact on rural livelihoods and national economy in Malawi. One credit institution recalled by the craftsmen to be Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC) carried out its credit feasibility research in Katengeza, but it did not materialize towards provision of credits to the bamboo handicrafts makers. The respondents suggested that credit institutions were not able to give out loans because their market was perceived to be seasonal and risky. The Foundation for International Community Assistance (FINCA) was observed to offer loans to women groups only but none of the women interviewed had obtained loan for expansion of her bamboo enterprise. During need assessment exercise in FGDs, it was frequently mentioned that lack
105
of credit hindered them from expanding their merchandise. However, among those interviewed none had borrowed money from any credit institutions. The ruling United Democratic Front government initiated the OVOP program to promote economic activities of Malawians. The program advocates for specialization on economic activities people are efcient on. OVOP identied bamboo handicraft making to be among the economic activities that rural people in Mvera could be engaged in. At the time of research, a group of local manufacturers attended a consultative workshop on possibilities of forming an association of bamboo handicraft makers and modalities of OVOP. If issues of widening markets for the bamboo handicrafts would be promoted, the cash incomes from bamboo handicrafts would increase.
CONCLUSIONS
Bamboo handicraft making and bamboo culm vending are contributing signicantly to the livelihood security in the areas studied. Handicraft making showed gender imbalance as it involved mainly males expect in one Chipala womens group, which is not also performing efciently. Bamboo culm vending involves both sexes. The average bamboo enterprise cash income contribution to household cash incomes was about 6 times the agricultural cash income. This is so because the bamboo entrepreneurs rarely sold their farm produce. However, average own farm consumption was the highest source of income in kind. It contributed about one and half times as much as average bamboo enterprise cash income. The cash incomes from bamboo enterprise were used for household upkeep (buying food, groceries, transport, hospital expenses), inputs for agricultural production and initial capital for small-scale business (e.g., wood workshop, grocery shop, miscellaneous merchandise). Bamboo handicraft industry has also created a considerable casual labour market in Mvera area. Casual labour at bamboo workshops is an economic activity beneting other villagers. There are no profound bamboo management practices by the bamboo entrepreneurs in both handicraft making and bamboo culm vending villages. The abundance of bamboos in the nearby Forest Reserve has impeded sustainable management of bamboos by the bamboo-utilizing households. Currently there are no stakeholders working with the communities in sustainable management of bamboos. Thuma Forest Reserve carries out a general re management of the forest and bamboos are thereby virtually managed. The Forest Guards of the forest reserve also control the entry into the reserve by issuance of bamboo extraction fee to the bamboo-collecting entrepreneurs. The following external stakeholders were perceived involved in bamboo handicraft industry in one way or another; Malawi Chambers of Commerce and Industry (MCCI), Dowa District Council, Salima District Forestry Ofce, and Appropriate Technology Training Unit for Income Generating Activities (ATTIGA). Other potential stakeholders identied in bamboo industry were One Village One Product
106
(OVOP), Department of Forestry, Forestry Research Institute of Malawi, and credit institutions. The major market purchasers of the bamboo handicrafts and the raw bamboo culms were urban dwellers, tourists and owners of entertainment places and estate farms, respectively.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Since studies on bamboos are very rare in Malawi, it would be helpful for the success of bamboo enterprises and its resource management that bamboo should be further researched. The research should be carried out in all possible uses of bamboo. The biology of O. abyssinica (the bamboo species found in the study area) should be thoroughly understood to develop appropriate interventions. The mystery of gregarious owering and death of bamboo culm should also be studied. In this research, bamboos were only used as a raw material for construction of structures. There are a lot of uses of bamboos that support livelihood in both rural and urban sectors. Since the bamboos in Thuma Forest Reserve are threatened by the growing demand for bamboos, there should be policy interventions in bamboo plantations both at smallholder level and commercial level. Department of Forestry management committee should look into the possibility of co-managing Thuma Forest Reserve with the bamboo culm harvesting communities to avoid wanton harvesting of bamboo. The Department of Forestry should also start managing strategically the bamboos in Thuma Forest Reserve. MCCI can play a vital role in promoting the bamboo handicraft industry. Linkages should be deployed in trade industry to create a conducive trade environment for bamboo, its handicraft industry and other uses not discussed in the paper. The management of chipapati should also be looked into since it is a complementary raw material in the handicraft industry. It has been shown by the entrepreneurs that the success of bamboo handicraft industry relies on the availability of chipapati. The chipapati is purported not to thrive in Mvera and this makes the supply of chipapati to hail from far places like Salima, 30 to 50 km away from the handicraft making area. Integration of chipapati plantation with bamboo would be desirable.
REFERENCES
1. Ebony Consulting and NSO, Malawi-National Gemini MSE Baseline Survey 2000. A report prepared for Department for International Development (DfID), Malawi (2000). 2. M. A. R. Phiri, Assessment of the Operational Context of NTFP and Their Potential Contribution to Sustainable Forestry Management. National Forestry Programme, Department of Forestry, Lilongwe (2000). 3. R. W. S. Nyirenda, Non-Wood Forest Product Development in Malawi. Pilot country study prepared for the regional expert consultation on NWFP (non-wood forest products), Arusha (1993).
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4. F. Ellis, Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2000). 5. F. Ellis, M. Kutengule and A. Nyasulu, Livelihoods and Rural Poverty Reduction in Malawi, LADDER Working Paper No. 17. Overseas Development Group, University of East Anglia, Norwich (2002). 6. J. R. Davis, The Rural Non-Farm Economy, Livelihoods and their Diversication: Issues and Options. Report prepared for Natural Resources Institute, Department for International Development and World Bank (2003). 7. P. Jere, K. Varela and B.Voysey, Synthesis Study of Initiatives on Co management of Natural Resources in Malawi. National Forestry Policy Working Paper No. 1, National Forestry Policy Co-ordinating Unit, Lilongwe (2000). 8. B. N. Kigomo, Bamboo resources in East Africa, in: Bamboos Current Research, Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop, Cochin, India, I. V. R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C. B. Sastry (Eds), pp. 2228 (1988). Accessible at http://www.inbar.int/publication/txt/INBAR_PR_02.htm (accessed on 7-01-2003). 9. J. D. Ngalande, Thuma Forest Reserve: Forestry Inventory and Management Option Report. Department of Forestry, Lilongwe (1999). 10. Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Food Security, in: Average Retail Prices for Selected Major Food Commodities. Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Food Security, Lilongwe (2003). 11. L. Dubey, Malawis Food Crisis: Causes and Solutions. USAID, Lilongwe (2003). 12. B. N. Botha, Looking for a path out of poverty: causes and implications for policy. The case of Chimaliro Forestry Reserve, Malawi, Thesis submitted in partial fulllment for the Degree of Master of Science in Development and Resource Economics at Agricultural University of Norway, s (2003).

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J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1 2 (2005) VSP 2005.

Also available online - www.vsppub.com

J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 3 11 (2005) VSP 2005.

Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds

Dr. Man Mohan Singh Rawat

Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds

Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia 2.70.

CD at 5%: temperature 1.56; media 1.10;

Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia 4.45.

CD at 5%: temperature 2.57; media 1.82;

Values in parentheses are arcsin transformed. temperaturemedia 3.15.

CD at 5%: temperature 1.82; media 1.29;

21.61 18.40 15.52 16.66 19.38 17.95

CD at 5%: temperature 0.44; media 0.31; temperaturemedia 0.75.

CD at 5%: temperature 0.39; media 0.27; temperaturemedia 0.67.

Optimum conditions for testing germination of bamboo seeds

Also available online - www.vsppub.com

J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 13 31 (2005) VSP 2005.

whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: bpbhatt@neline.com

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Figure 8. A customer purchasing bamboo shoot squash at Wokha market, Nagaland.

Bamboo shoot products

Roasted bamboo shoots

Whole shoot, Soidon/ Manipuri

Boiled bamboo shoot

Whole shoot, Mesu/Nepali

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Bamboo shoot product

Fermented slice Fermented whole shoot Total

Bamboo shoot product

246 33 477 52 723 85 5099 525

3.7 0.5 22.9 2.5 26.6 3.0 679.9 58.2

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Bamboo shoot product

Fermented-slice Fermented whole shoot Total

Bamboo shoot product

Retail price (Rs/kg)

Grand total (Rs.)

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Commercial edible bamboo species of the North-Eastern Himalayan, Part II

Also available online - www.vsppub.com

J. Bamboo and Rattan, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 33 39 (2005) VSP 2005.

Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda grown at Eastern Terai, Nepal

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Biomass estimation of Bambusa tulda

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

8 3.72 4.60 5.64 6.84

9 3.97 4.96 6.13 7.48 9.01

10 5.32 6.62 8.12 9.82 11.72

11 7.11 8.76 10.63 12.72 15.03

12 7.60 9.40 11.44 13.72 16.24 19.00

13 10.04 12.25 14.72 17.45 20.44

14 10.68 13.06 15.72 18.66 21.88

15 13.87 16.72 19.87 23.32