Liquid Penetrant Inspection 1

1. Introduction
1.1 Non- Destructive Evaluation Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. The terms Non-destructive examination (NDE), Non-destructive inspection (NDI) and Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Flaws/cracks present a material plays a major role in determination of its fracture strength and hence life. Hence techniques of crack detection became more popular. The present report is all about one such non-destructive technique, ie. Liquid Penetrant Testing.

1.2 Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT) Indian Standard Institution (IS: 3658-1981)
(2)

defines liquid penetrant

test as a non-destructive testing method for detecting discontinuities that are open to surface. LPTs may be effectively used in the inspection of both ferrous and nonferrous metals and on non-porous, non-metallic materials, such as ceramics, plastics and glass. Surface discontinuities such as cracks, cold shunts are indicated by this method. Flaw detection using the help of liquid penetrant is being increasingly used in various industries.(2)(3) and hence it is a relevant NDT process in the nation.

LPT utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid (penetrant) around the discontinuity to create a recognizable indication of a crack or other surface anomaly.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 2 Capillary action attracts the fluid to the discontinuity in a concentration heavier than in the surroundings. In order for the fluid concentration to be recognized, the background (developer) area must be of sufficient contrast to distinctly reveal the defect on the surface. The complete penetrant flaw detection system, therefore, consists of the fluid mechanics on the surface, as well as the recognition system that is used to detect the indication. Eg. The testing method can be well explained using the example of a concrete slab. First the slab is initially wetted with a fluid that flows readily. Second, the fluid is drawn into the crack by a capillary action. And, third, the excess fluid is removed from the surface creating a good contrast between the still moist areas and dried. Finally it is important to note that the penetrants are useful only for the surface breaking defects. The crack that did not reach the surface would not be detected.(5)

. Fig 1.Turbine blade with the application of penetrant Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~2~

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Fig.2 Turbine blade with the application of developer.

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2. Scientific Principles Involved In LPT

The complete penetrant flaw detection system is based on the fluid mechanics of the penetrant on the surface. Three major areas of fluid mechanics that play a significant role in LPT are as follows, Surface Tension Capillarity Viscosity Surface tension is a fluid property that affects the flow of the fluid and wettability of the fluid penetrant of the surface to be inspected. Capillarity is the driving force in the movement of the penetrant the solid surface, into the crack and out of the crack into the developer. Viscosity is the property of a fluid, affecting the flow of the fluid on the surface to be inspected. 2.1 Surface Tension Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist external force. The cohesive forces between molecules of a liquid cause surface tension. An example of the influence of surface tension is the tendency of free liquid, such as a droplet of water, to contract into a sphere. In such a droplet, surface tension is counter balanced by the internal hydrostatic pressure of the liquid. When the liquid comes into contact with a solid surface, the cohesive force responsible for surface tension competes with the adhesive force between the molecules of the liquid and the solid surface. These forces jointly determine the contact angle, , between the liquid and the surface. Contact angle lesser than 90 degree gives good wetting on the surface, which is desirable.

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Fig 3.Fluid-solid contact angles (<90, 90,>90) respectively

Fig 4.Surface Tension

The contact angle is a function of the properties of both the fluid and the material being inspected. The cleanliness of the surface also affects the contact angle. The ability of the fluid to enter the surface cavities is directly proportional to the surface tension, and inversely proportional to the contact angle, the density and the size of opening. Table 1: Surface Tension of liquids at 20o c in contact with air Liquid Benzene Hexane Kerosene Lube Oil Surface Tension (m N/m) 28.9 18.4 26.8 25-35 ~5~

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 6 Methanol Octane Water 22.6 21.8 72.8

2.2 Capillarity It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to external forces like gravity. But recent studies made by MIT (US) research group on Non Newtanian Fluids shows that the liquid drops may lose their spherical shape under the influence of gravity. There exists a particular length, denoted -1, beyond which gravity becomes important. It is referred to as the capillary length. It can be estimated by comparing the Laplace pressure /-1 to the hydrostatic pressure g-1 at a depth -1 in a liquid of density submitted to earth's gravity g=9.8 m/s2. Equating these two pressures defines the capillary length.(w 1)

(I) For water, the capillary length = 2.7 mm It occurs because of inter-molecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces; If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container act to lift the liquid as shown in fig 5. Capillary rise/fall is a function of surface tension, contact angle & density of the liquid as shown in the equation (I Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~6~

Liquid Penetrant Inspection 7 (II)

Fig 5.Capillary rise Even though flaws are not exactly capillary tubes, the phenomenon of penetration is by capillary action.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 8 Table 2:Contact angles of Various Liquid-solid Interfaces Liquid water ethanol diethyl ether carbon tetrachloride glycerol acetic acid water paraffin wax silver methyl iodide soda-lime glass lead glass fused quartz 2.3Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear or tensile stress. Viscosity describes a fluid's Internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction.The viscosity of the liquid is not a factor in the basic equation of capillary rise. Viscosity is related to the rate at which a liquid will flow under some applied unbalanced stress; in itself, viscosity has a negligible effect on penetrating ability. In general, however, very viscous liquids are unsuitable as penetrants because they do not flow rapidly enough over the surface of the work piece; consequently, they require excessively long periods of time to migrate into fine flaws. Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~8~ 107 90 29 30 33 Solid soda-lime glass lead glass fused quartz Contact angle 0

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3. History and Evolution Of LPT.

The exact origin of liquid penetrant inspection is not known, but it has been assumed that the method evolved from the observation that the rust on a crack in a steel plate in outdoor storage was somewhat heavier than the rust on the adjacent surfaces as a result of water seeping into the crack and forcing out the oxide it had helped to produce. The obvious conclusion was that a liquid purposely introduced into surface cracks and then brought out again would reveal the locations of those cracks.

The only material that fulfilled the known criteria of low viscosity, good wettability, and ready availability was kerosene. It was found, however, that although wider cracks showed up easily, finer ones were sometimes missed because of the difficulty of detecting, by purely visual means, the small amounts of kerosene exuding from them. The solution was to provide a contrasting surface that would reveal smaller seepages. The properties and availability of whitewash made it the logical choice. This method, known as the kerosene-and-whiting test, was the standard for many years. The sensitivity of the kerosene-and-whiting test could be increased by hitting the object being tested with a hammer during testing. The resulting vibration brought more of the kerosene out of the cracks and onto the whitewash.

Although this test was not as sensitive as those derived from it, it was quick, inexpensive, and reasonably accurate. Thus, it provided a vast improvement over ordinary visual examination. The first step leading to the methods now available was the development of the fluorescent penetrant process by R.C. Switzer. This liquid, used jointly with a powder Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~9~

Liquid Penetrant Inspection 10 developer, brought penetrant inspection from a relatively crude procedure to a more scientific operation. With fluorescent penetrant, minute flaws could be readily detected when exposed to ultraviolet light (commonly called black light). This development represented a major breakthrough in the detection of surface flaws. Switzer's work also included the development of the visible-colour contrast method, which allowed for inspection under white light conditions. Although not as sensitive as fluorescent penetrant inspection, it is widely used in industry for noncritical inspection. Through the developments described above, liquid penetrant inspection has become a major non-destructive inspection method.

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4. Terminologies Related To LPT As In IS: 3658- 1981.(2)

Penetrant:- A liquid possessing the property of entering into small openings and to remain there, making it suitable for liquid penetrant test. Developer:-A substance ,which is usually white in colour and powdered in the form and having the property of blotting out a penetrant retained in defects, thus intensifying the indications and providing a contrasting background for the penetrant. Dwell Time: - The period of time wherein an inspection penetrant is in contact with the surface of the part. Emulsifiable Penetrants:-Penetrants capable of being converted into a water washable condition by the addition of emulsifier. Post-emulsifiable Penetrant:-A Penetrant which must be treated with an emulsifying agent to render it water washable. Pre-emulsifiable Penetrant:-A penetrant with suitable

emulsifiable agent, added to render it directly water washable. Self-emulsifiable Penetrant:-The property of a liquid penetrant to combine satisfactorily with water, thus facilitating its removal by washing with water. Vapour Degreasing:-The removal of oils, greases, and organic oils by the use of suitable vapour.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 12 Ultraviolet Light:-Monochromatic blue light of approximately 4300 Angstrom wavelength, used to cause certain liquid penetrant s to fluorescence. Bleed Out:-The action by which the penetrant comes out of the discontinuities on to the surface of materials due to

blotting/soaking effect of the developer. Fluorescent Penetrants:-penetrating liquids containing additives to fluorescence under black light. Solvent Remove:-A liquid employed for removal of surface penetrant from parts or for removal of unwanted background porosity indications.

5. LPT Process Description

LPT process consists of 5 basic steps.viz

1. Surface Preparation. All surfaces to be inspected, whether localized or the entire work piece must be thoroughly cleaned and completely dried before being subjected to penetrant inspection. Flaws exposed to the surface must be free from oil, water, or other contaminants if they are to be detected.

2. Penetration. After the work piece has been cleaned, penetrant is applied in a suitable manner so as to form a film of the penetrant over the surface. This film should remain on the surface long enough to allow maximum penetration of the penetrant into any surface openings that are present.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 13 3. Removal of Excess Penetrant. Excess penetrant must be removed from the surface. The removal method is determined by the type of penetrant used. Some penetrants can be simply washed away with water; others require the use of emulsifiers (lipophilic or hydrophilic) or solvent/remover. Uniform removal of excess surface penetrant is necessary for effective inspection, but over removal must be avoided.

4. Development. Depending on the form of developing agent to be used, the work piece is dried either before or directly after application of the developer. The developer forms a film over the surface. It acts as a blotter to assist the natural seepage of the penetrant out of surface openings and to spread it at the edges so as to enhance the penetrant indication.

5. Inspection. After it is sufficiently developed, the surface is visually examined for indications of penetrant bleed back from surface openings. This examination must be performed in a suitable inspection environment. Visible penetrant inspection is performed in good white light. When fluorescent penetrant is used, inspection is performed in a suitably darkened area using black (ultraviolet) light, which causes the penetrant to fluoresce brilliantly.

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Fig. 6 LPT Process Description Surface Preparation Key Recommendations for surface preparation by ISI code 3658 are as follows, In general satisfactory results can be obtained when the surface is in the as welded, as rolled, as cast/forged condition, but surface preparation by grinding/machining or other suitable method may be necessary, when surface irregularities could otherwise mask indications of

unacceptable discontinuities.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 15 Heavy grinding should be avoided to avoid the masking of fine defects. The surface to be examined and all adjacent areas within at least 25 mm should be also dry and clean. The method of cleaning depends on the nature of material and contamination. Cleaning using detergents, organic

solvents, alkali solutions, paint remover, descaling solutions, vapour degreasing, ultrasonic cleaning, abrasive blasting are in practice. Penetration o Classification Of Penetrants Type I fluorescent penetrant utilizes penetrants that are usually green in colour and fluorescent brilliantly under ultraviolet light. The sensitivity of a fluorescent penetrant depends on its ability to form indications that appear as small sources of light in an otherwise dark area. Type I penetrants are available in different sensitivity levels classified as follows:

Level: Ultralow Level 1: Low Level 2: Medium Level 3: High Level 4: Ultrahigh

Type II visible penetrant employs a penetrant that is usually red in colour and produces vivid red indications in contrast to the light background of the applied developer under visible light. The visible penetrant indications must be viewed under adequate white light. The ~ 15 ~

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 16 sensitivity of visible penetrants is regarded as Level 1 and adequate for many applications. Visible light level-Recommended minimum light intensity at examination site=100 lux/m2. (1) Penetrant selection and use depend on the criticality of the inspection, the condition of the work piece surface, the type of processing, and the desired sensitivity.

Fig 7.Application of red liquid penetrant

Penetrant Selection Method

Method A, water-washable penetrants are designed for the removal of excess surface penetrant by water rinsing directly after a suitable penetration (dwell) time. The emulsifier is incorporated into the waterwashable penetrant. When this type of penetrant is used, it is extremely important that the removal of excess surface penetrant be properly controlled to prevent over washing, which can cause the penetrant to be washed out of the flaws. Methods B and D, lipophilic and hydrophilic post emulsifiable penetrants are insoluble in water and therefore not removable by water rinsing alone. They are designed to be selectively removed from the Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~ 16 ~

Liquid Penetrant Inspection 17 surface of the work piece by the use of a separate emulsifier. The emulsifier, properly applied and left for a suitable emulsification time, combines with the excess surface penetrant to form a water-washable surface mixture that can be rinsed from the surface of the workpiece. The penetrant that remains within the flaw is not subject to over washing. However, proper emulsification time must be established experimentally and maintained to ensure that over emulsification, which results in the loss of flaws, does not occur. Method C, solvent-removable penetrants are removed by wiping with clean, lint-free material until most traces of the penetrant have been removed. The remaining traces are removed by wiping with clean, lintfree material lightly moistened with solvent. This type of penetrant is primarily used where portability is required and for the inspection of localized areas. To minimize the possibility of removing the penetrant from discontinuities, the use of excessive amounts of solvent must be avoided.

Emulsifiers Emulsifiers are liquids used to render excess penetrant on the surface of a work piece water washable. There are two methods used in the post emulsifiable method: method B, lipophilic, and method D, hydrophilic. Both can act over a range of durations from a few seconds to several minutes, depending on the viscosity, concentration, method of application, and chemical composition of the emulsifier, as well as on the roughness of the work piece surface.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 18 The length of time an emulsifier should remain in contact with the penetrant depends on the type of emulsifier employed and the roughness of the work piece surface.

Method B, lipophilic emulsifiers are oil based, are used as supplied, and function by diffusion (Fig. 11). The emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant film and renders it spontaneously emulsifiable in water. The rate at which it diffuses into the penetrant establishes the emulsification time. The emulsifier is fast acting, thus making the emulsification operation very critical. The emulsifier continues to act as long as it is in contact with the work piece; therefore, the rinse operation should take place quickly to avoid over emulsification

Fig8. Functioning of Lipophilic Emulsifier

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection 19 Method D, hydrophilic emulsifiers are water based and are usually supplied as concentrates that are diluted in water to concentrations of 5 to 30% for dip applications and 0.05 to 5% for spray applications. Hydrophilic emulsifiers function by displacing excess penetrant from the surface of the part by detergent action. The force of the water spray or the air agitation of dip tanks provides a scrubbing action. Hydrophilic emulsifier is slower acting than the lipophilic emulsifier; therefore, it is easier to control the cleaning action. In addition to the emulsifier application, method D also requires a pre rinse. Utilizing a coarse water spray, the pre rinse helps remove the excess penetrant to minimize contamination of the emulsifier. Of greater significance, only a very thin and uniform layer of penetrant will remain on the surface, thus allowing easy removal of the surface layer with minimum opportunity of removing penetrant from the flaws. This step is required because the penetrant is not miscible with the hydrophilic emulsifier.

Fig 9.Functioning Of Hydrophilic Emulsifier Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~ 19 ~

Liquid Penetrant Inspection 20 Recommendations

(2)

Penetration Time When high viscosity florescent penetrant is used, the penetration time is longer than normal penetration time. In such a case, time shall be subjected to agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.

If the testing is to be done out of the range of 15-500 c, the penetration time should be suitably increased, and the whole process and the materials is to be checked using a comparator block.

If water washable penetrants are used, the penetration time shall be about 1.5 to 2.0 times of 10 minutes. Rinsing

Using water washable penetrant rinsing should be done with water supply nozzle. Temperature of water should not exceed 43oC and pressure of 3 kg /cm2 should be maintained. On smooth surfaces, it may be possible sometimes to remove excess penetrant merely by wiping the surface with dry rag. Using fluorescent type of penetrant, it is helpful to use a portable black light source, while rinsing, so as to ensure that rinsing operation is complete. Developing Generally half of the penetration time is considered as developing time. Developers may either of dry type or wet type. A good practice is to start observation as soon as developer applied.

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Fig 10 Application Of Developer Inspection With visible dye penetrants, surface defects are indicated by bleeding out of penetrant, normally deep red in colour. Crack/small openings show a line, tight crack shows broken lines. Fine porosity will be indicated by random dots.(see fig 11) Depth of surface discontinuity can be correlated to richness of colour and speed of bleeding. A minimum light intensity of 1000 lx/ m2 is to be maintained.

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Fig 11 Random dots indicating fine porosity in the material

Fig 12 Crack Inspection using fluorescent penetrant in black light

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Fig 12 Crack Inspection using fluorescent penetrant in black light

Table 3.Crack Detection Limits for Dye Penetrant Test (4) Type of Inspection Production Parts (lab use) Production Parts (inspection) Structure (Service Inspection) Sensitivity of LPT(5) The sensitivity of LPT is defined as the ratio of number of detected cracks per scan of UV laser to the total number of actual craks.It is expressed in percentage. Higher values of sensitivity refer to higher efficiency of LPT in the crack detection process. Crack length (mm) 0.127 0.76 1.27

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6. Process Flow Diagrams of LPT(8)

They are the flow diagrams/charts referring the preferences of LPT and direct the path of conduction of LPT.

Fig 13 Process flow diagram of postemulsifiable, method B, lipophilic liquid penetrant system

Fig 14. Processing flow diagram for the water-washable liquid penetrant system Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~ 24 ~

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Fig 15 Processing flow diagram for the solvent-removable liquid penetrant system

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7. List of ASTM standards for LPT

ASTM E 165- Standard Practices for Liquid-Penetrant Inspection Method ASTM E 270- Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to LiquidPenetrant Inspection ASTM E 1208- Standard Method for Fluorescent Liquid-Penetrant Examination Using the Lipophilic Post-Emulsification Process ASTM E 1209- Standard Method for Fluorescent-Penetrant Examination Using the Water-Washable Process ASTM E 1210- Standard Method for Fluorescent-Penetrant Examination Using the Hydrophilic Post-Emulsification Process ASTM E 1219- Standard Method for Fluorescent-Penetrant Examination Using the Solvent-Removable Process ASTM

1220-

Standard

Method

for

Visible-Penetrant

Examination Using the Solvent-Removable Process ASTM E 1135- Standard Test Method for Comparing the Brightness of Fluorescent Penetrants ASTM D 2512- Compatibility of Materials with Liquid Oxygen (Impact-Sensitivity Threshold Technique) Department Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engg. MIT,Manipal ~ 26 ~

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8. Safety Considerations In LPT(4,7) Changes

in environmental protection standards have placed restrictions on many chemicals used as liquid penetrants. Methyl Chloroform (MCF), a liquid penetrant was banned after Montreal Protocol (2002) since it was a CFC causing ozone depletion. Then a Ozone friendly penetrant HCFC-123 replaced MCF. (7)

Certain chemicals which are used as a fluorescent penetrants were

irritants and even carcinogenic.

Gloves, UV

aprons, masks should be used when working with many

chemicals. rays from an arc lamp may burn skin/eyes if the filters are

broken.

Many of the volatile solvents are highly inflammable. So cleaning

area should be ventilated to avoid fire accidents.

Special

care must be taken in the inspection of liquid oxygen

tanks.eg. Selection of penetrants/cleansers that will not cause explosive reactions with liquid oxygen residues.

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Summary of LPT
Advantages of LPT 1. It is portable, well suited for fieldwork. 2. Relatively inexpensive. 3. Applicable to many non-porous materials of wide range of size and irregular shapes. 4. Flaw orientation will not pose a problem. 5. Large objects can be checked on spot (in situ). 6. It can be designed for high volume production. Problems with LPT Only surface anomalies which can absorb the liquid can be detected. Rough and porous (low density powder metallurgical products) surfaces cant be used. Significant surface preparation is required for good results. Chemically compatible component and penetrant must be considered. Sharp corners and complex edges give false indications.

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9. Conclusion
Of the thousands of parts made for the space shuttle, hundreds are inspected by penetrant testing. Items such as valves, pipelines, tanks and structural membranes used in space vehicles liquid oxygen systems are penetrant inspected for flaws. Turbine engine blades are usually inspected using radiography, eddy current and penetrant testing to ensure there is no premature failure of the blades. (3) During maintenance of honeycomb and adhesively bonded aircraft structures, radiography can detect the presence of corrosion or water, but it cannot detect the origin of the water. Penetrant testing can find these areas before water and corrosion happen. The automotive industry uses penetrant testing to ensure flaw-free parts such as steering spindles, aluminum suspension parts and aluminum rims. Fluorescent dye is used in locating leaks in air conditioning systems in automobiles. The fluorescent dye is added to the system and run for several minutes; a high-intensity black light locates leaks in the system. Back in the 1960s it was thought by nondestructive testing engineers that penetrant testing days were numbered and new technology would replace it. Penetrant testing may not be used as much as it was in the past, but it still has a place in a wide range of industries and applications. Penetrant testing is going to be around for many years to come.

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