Radar Technology

Radar Technology.
Acknowledgement.
The author consider it a pleasant duty to express this Heartiest appreciation, gratitude and indebtedness to H.O.D. Mr. Gautam Sardar Department of Aeronautical, N.I.A.E., Dehradun, for his keen interest, invaluable and excellent guidance, inspiration, encouragement and throughout advice during each and every phase of present inspiration. Our sincere thanks to Department of Aeronautical for providing all facilities and encouragement during course of work. We are again thankful to all others who did there best, directly or indirectly to co-operate us in successful completion of this work.
Enrollment No:DE-11/05/19044
Submitted by:Payel Nag
Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Abstract.
This paper describes a Radar Technology project which was done by a group of two students in the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, National Institute of Aeronautical Engineering. The objective of the project is to develop a Radar based model which is used in aircraft, in detection, tracking of objects which are high on sky.
Radar Technology.
Objective.
The design project which is the subject of this paper originated from a realworld application. The objective was to develop a temperature controller which maintains a constant temperature set by the user by controlling a cooler in the room. The motivation was that a controller targeted specifically for the application should be able to achieve the same functionality at a much lower cost, equipped to handle a wide variety of applications.
Radar Technology.
Contents.

Introduction History Development Operation Principles

o o o o
Reflection Radar equation Polarization Interference Noise Clutter Jamming
Radar signal processing o Transist Time o Frequency Modulation o Speed measurement o Reduction of interference effects
Radar Engineering
o o
Antenna design
Radar Antennas
Radomes Material Used o Parabolic Reflector o Types of Scan o Slotted Waveguide o Phased Array 4 Frequency Bands Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Radar Modulators o Line Pulse Modulator o Active Switch. Scanning And Tracking With Radars o Scanning Horizontal Scan Pattern. Elevation/Vertical/Nodding Scan. Helical Scanning. Spiral Scanning. o Tracking Lobe Switching/Sequential Switching/Sequential Lobing. Conical Switching Monopulse Tracking/Simultaneous Lobing o Tracking In Doppler o Tracking In Range Radar Displays o A-scope Displays o B-scope/E-scope/F-scope Displays o Plan Position Indicator (PPI) Radar Coolant Types Of Radar o Pulsed Radar System o CW Doppler Radar o Frequency CW Doppler Radar o Moving Target Indicator Radar Radar Applications
Radar Technology. Introduction.

The word RADAR is an acronym which was coined in 1942 by the us Navy for Radio Detection and Ranging. It information waves to about them is basically a means of gathering
distant objects or targets by sending electromagnetic and there after analyzing reflected waves or the echo
signals. Radar actually evolved a few years before World War II. It was radar that gave birth to microwave technology. In fact the early researchers found that the highest frequency gave the most accurate results. Higher frequencies produce the best echoes, make it possible to detect smaller targets and permit the use of smaller antennas. A radar can detect static or mobile objects or targets and is the most effective method for guiding a pilot with regard to his location in space and also for warning the approach of an enemy plane for similar purpose. We know that if that if an electromagnetic wave encounter sudden change in conductivity , permittivity or permeability in the medium, a part of
electromagnetic energy gets absorbed by the second medium and is reradiated. This sudden change in the electrical property of a medium
constitutes the target. The re-radiation energy on being received back at the radar information about the location of the target. The location of station gives the target
includes range, angle and velocity parameters. The range in the distance of the target from radar station. The angle could be azimuth or elevation angle for static targets and velocity for moving targets. For satisfactory location of the target, the received power must be appreciable. Accordingly, the amount of power required to be radiated by the radar
transmitter must be tremendous, typically few kW to MW. Such high power at high frequencies can be generated using magnetrons.
Radar Technology. History.

Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range, both moving and fixed objects such as altitude, direction, or speed of
aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A transmitter emits radio waves, which are reflected by the target and detected by a
receiver, typically in the same location as the transmitter. Although the radio signal returned is usually very weak, radio signals can easily be amplified. This enables a radar to detect objects at ranges where other emissions, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect. Radar is used in many contexts, including meteorological detection of precipitation, air traffic control, police detection of speeding traffic, and by the military. The term RADAR coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio Detection was
and Ranging. This
acronym of American origin replaced the previously used British abbreviation RDF (which entered the stands for Radio Direction Finding). The term has since
English language
as a standard word, radar,
losing the
capitalization in the process. Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar. The use of radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic in 1904 by the Christian presence
objects via radio waves" was first implemented Hlsmeyer, of a who demonstrated the
feasibility of detecting
ship on the sea
in dense fog, but not its distance. He received a
Reichspatent patent Nr. 165546 for his pre-radar device in April and on November 11, 1904 the patent 169154 an amendment of his patent for ranging that is indirectly related to his device. He received a patent GB13170, in England for his telemobiloscope on September 22, 1904. Tesla in 1917, first August
established principles regarding frequency and power level for the
first primitive RADAR units. Prior to the Second World War, developments by the Americans. Dr. Robert monopulse radar in 1934, the Germans, the French Patent GB593017 by Robert
M. Page tested the first
Patent n 788795 in 1934, and the British 7
Radar Technology.
Watson - Watt in 1935 led to the first real radars. Hungarian Zoltn Bay produced a working model by 1936 at the Tungsram laboratory in the same vein. In 1934, mile Girardeau, working with the first French RADAR
systems, stated he was building RADAR systems "conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla.
Development.
The Chain Home system was fairly primitive, since in order to be battleready it had been rushed into production by Sir Robert Watson - Watt's Air Ministry Research station near Bawdsey. Watson - Watt, a pragmatic engineer, believed that "third-best" would do if "second-best " would not be available in time and "best" never available at all. Chain Home certainly suffered from
glitches and errors in reporting. However, it was still the best in the world then available and provided crucial operational information without which the Battle of Britain could well have been lost. Chain Home looked nothing like the radar sets found at modern commercial airports. There was no rotating antenna sending out a "searchlight" beam of radio energy, but instead an array of fixed antennas. The transmitting array was formed of wires strung between high metal towers, and this array sent out a "floodlight" of radio energy covering a swath of about 100 degrees. 1) The receiving array was on wood towers and consisted of two antennas at right angles to each other. 2) The receiving antennas were directional in their sensitivity, so the
signal strength
received by each
depended on the angle between it and a comparator device to find
the target. An operator would manually adjust
which angle best matched the relative strengths of the two received signals. The angle of elevation to the target was estimated by similar comparisons to the signal strengths from a second pair of receiving antennas. This second pair was located closer to the ground, which produced a different sensitivity in elevation. 3) The time delay of the echo determined the range to the target. The altough
Chain Home stations were designed to operate at 20 to 50 MHz typical were at 20 - 30 MHz, or about a 12 meter wavelength. 8
Radar Technology.
4) The availability of multiple operating frequencies gave some protection from jamming. The detection range was typically 120 miles, but could be better. 5) The Chain Home Low stations operated at 200 MHz, or about a 1.5 meter wavelength. Technically, they were not closely related to Chain Home, and they employed a rotating antenna. Compare with the German Freya radar. From May to August 1939, the German Zeppelin LZ130 made flights along Britain's North Sea coast to investigate the 100 m high radio towers the British had erected from Portsmouth to radiometric tests and Scapa Flow. LZ130 performed a series of
took photographs.
Many sources report the LZ130 new British stations,
missions failed to identify the true purpose of the
concluding the towers were for long range naval radio communication, not radio location. However, the 12 m Chain Home signals were detected and to be radar. The chief investigator was not able to prove his
suspected
suspicions, so Germany went to war uncertain of British radar defenses.
Radar Technology. Operations.

The Chain Home ststion were arranged around the the British coast, initially in the South and East but later the entire coastline, including the Shetland Islands. They were first tested in the Battle of Britain in1940 when they were able to provide adequate early warning of incoming Luftwaffe raids. During the battle, Chain Home stations, most notably the one at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, were attacked a number of times between 12 and 18 August, 1940. On one occasion a section of the radar chain in Kent, including the Dover CH, was put out of action by a lucky hit on the power grid. However, though the wooden huts housing the radar equipment were damaged, the towers owing to their open steel survived
girder construction. Because the towers were
untoppled and the signals soon restored, the Luftwaffe concluded the stations were too difficult to damage by bombing and so left them alone for the rest of the war. Had the Luftwaffe realized just how essential the radar stations were to
British air defenses, it is likely that they would have gone all out to destroy them. The Chain Home system was dismantled after the war, but some of the tall steel radar towers remain, converted to new uses. One such 360 foot high (110 m) transmitter tower (picture above) can now be found at the
BAE Systems facility at Great Baddow in Essex (2003). It originally stood at Canewdon, and is said to be the only Chain Home tower still in its original, unmodified form
Radar Guidance.
Radar guidance is normally used for medium or long range missiles, where the infra-red signature of the target would be too faint for an infra - red detector to track. There are two major types of radar - guided missile - active and semi active.
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Radar Technology.
Radar guided missiles can be countered by rapid maneuvering (which may
result in them "breaking lock", or may cause them to overshoot), deploying chaff or using electronic counter-measures.
Active Radar Homing.

Active radar (AR)- guided missiles carry their own radar system to detect and track their target. However, the size of the radar antenna is limited by the small diameter of missiles, limiting its range which typically means such missiles have to use another method to get close to the target before turning their radar set on, often relying on inertial guidance systems.
Semi-Active Radar Homing.

Semi - active radar (SAR) guided missiles are simpler and more common. They function by detecting the radar energy reflected from the target, the radar energy is emitted from the launch aircraft's own radar signal. However, this means the launch aircraft has to maintain a "lock" on the target (keep illuminating the target aircraft with its' own radar) until the missile makes the interception, limiting the attacking aircraft's ability to maneuver, which may be necessary should threats to the attacking aircraft appear. It also makes jamming the missile lock easier because the launching aircraft is further from the target than the missile, so the radar signal has to travel further and is greatly attenuated over the distance.
Beam Riding.
aAn early form of radar guidance was "beam-riding" (BR). In this method the attacking aircraft directed a narrow beam of radar energy at the target. The airto-air missile was launched into the beam where sensors on the aft of the missile controlled the missile, keeping it within the beam. So long as the beam was kept on the target aircraft, the missile would ride the beam until making the interception. While simple in concept, the difficulty of simultaneously keeping 11 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
the beam solidly on the target (which couldn't be relied upon to cooperate by flying straight and level), continuing to fly one's own aircraft, all the while
keeping an eye out for enemy countermeasures, can be readily appreciated. Although radar beam - riding air-to-air missiles are obsolete, the technology has since evolved toward laser - beam guided air-to-ground munitions, such as laserguided bombs (LGB). These precision - strike munitions are sometimes called "smart weapons" by the press.
Infrared Guidance.
Infrared guided (IR) missiles home on the heat produced by an aircraft. Early infra-red detectors had poor sensitivity, so could only track the hot exhaust pipes of an aircraft. This meant an attacking aircraft had to maneuver to a position behind its target before it could fire an infra-red guided missile. This also limited the range of the missile as the infra-red signature soon become too small to detect with increasing distance and after launch the missile was playing "catch-up" with its target. More modern infra-red guided missiles can detect the heat of an aircraft's skin, warmed by the friction of airflow, in addition to the fainter heat signature of the engine when the aircraft is seen from the side or head-on. This, combined with greater maneuverability, gives them an "all-aspect" capability, and an attacking aircraft no longer had to be behind its target to fire. Although
launching from behind the target increases the probability of a hit, the launching aircraft usually has to be closer to the target in a tail-chase engagement. An aircraft can defend against infra-red missiles by dropping flares that are hotter than the aircraft, so the missile homes in on the brighter, hotter target. Towed decoys and infra-red jammers can also be used. Some large aircraft and many combat helicopters make use of so called "hot brick" infra-red
jammers, typically mounted near the engines. Current research is developing laser devices which can spoof or destroy the guidance systems of infraredguided missiles. 12 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
However, the latest missiles such as the ASRAAM use an "imaging" infra-red seeker which "sees" the target (much like a digital video camera), and can distinguish between an aircraft and a point heat source such as a flare. They also feature a very wide detection angle, so the attacking aircraft does not have to be pointing straight at the target for the missile to lock on. The pilot can use a helmet mounted sight (HMS) and target another aircraft by looking at it, and then firing. This is called "off-boresight" launch. The Russian Su-27 is equipped with an infrared search and track (IRST) system with laser
rangefinder for its HMS-guided missiles. In order to maneuver sufficiently from a poor launch angle at short ranges to hit its target, missiles are now employing gas- dynamic flight control
methods such as vectored thrust, which allow the missile to start turning "off the rail", before its motor has accelerated it up to high enough speeds for its small aerodynamic surfaces to be useful.
Electro-Optical.
A recent advancement in missile guidance is electro- optical imaging. The Israeli Python-5 has an electro- optical seeker that scans designated area for targets via optical imaging. Once a target is acquired, the missile will lock- on to it for the kill. Electro-optical seekers can be programmed to target vital area of an aircraft, such as the cockpit. Since it doesn't depend on the target aircraft's heat signature, it can be used against low-heat targets such as UAV's and cruise missiles.
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Radar Technology.
Principles.
Reflection:The war precipitated the research to find better resolution, more portability, more features for that new defensive weapon. Post- war years have seen the use of radar in fields as diverse as air astrometry and road speed control. Electromagnetic waves reflect (scatter) from any large change in the dielectric or diamagnetic constants. This means that a solid object in air or a vacuum, or other significant change in atomic density between the object and what's traffic control, weather monitoring,
surrounding it, will usually scatter radar (radio) waves. This is particularly true for electrically conductive materials, such as metal and carbon fibre, particularly well suited to the detection of making radar
aircraft and ships. Radar
absorbing material, containing resistive and sometimes magnetic substances, is used on military vehicles to reduce radar reflection. This is the radio
equivalent of painting something a dark color.
Figure 1: Reflection Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways depending on the size (wavelength) of the radio wave and the shape of the target. If the wavelength is much shorter 14 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
than the target's size, the wave will bounce off in a way similar to the way light is reflected by a mirror. If the wavelength is much longer than the size of the target, the target is polarized (positive and negative charges are separated), like a dipole antenna. This is described by Rayleigh scattering, an effect that creates the Earth's blue sky and red sunsets. When the two length scales are comparable, there may be resonances. Early radars used very long wavelengths that were larger than the targets and received a vague signal, whereas some
modern systems use shorter wavelengths (a few centimetres or shorter) that can image objects as small as a loaf of bread. Short radio waves reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a rounded piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short
wavelengths have 90 angles between the reflective
surfaces. A structure
consisting of three flat surfaces meeting at a single corner, like the corner on a box, will always source. reflect waves entering its opening directly back at the
These so- called corner reflectors are commonly used as radar
reflectors to make otherwise difficult- to- detect objects easier to detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve their detection in a rescue
situation and to reduce collisions. For similar reasons, objects attempting to avoid detection will angle their surfaces in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and edges perpendicular to likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft. These precautions do not completely diffraction, especially at longer wavelengths.
eliminate reflection because of
Half wavelength long wires or strips of conducting material, such as chaff, are very reflective but do not direct the scattered energy back toward the source. The extent to which an object reflects or scatters radio waves is called its radar cross section.
Radar equation:The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:
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Radar Technology.
where

Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:
This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without
interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world
situation, pathloss effects should also be considered. Other mathematical developments in radar signal processing include timefrequency analysis (Weyl Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the chirplet transform which makes use of the fact that radar returns from moving targets typically "chirp" (change their frequency as a function of time, as does the sound of a bird or bat).
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Radar Technology.
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Simple Radar
Polarization:In the transmitted radar signal, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of the wave. Radars use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization to detect different types of reflections. For example, circular polarization is used to
minimize the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually indicate metal surfaces. Random polarization returns usually indicate a fractal surface, such as rocks or soil, and are used by navigation radars.
Interference:Radar systems must overcome several different sources of unwanted signals in order to focus only on the actual targets of interest. These unwanted signals may originate from internal and external sources, both passive and active. The 17 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
ability of the radar system to overcome these unwanted signals defines its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): the higher a system's SNR, the better it is in isolating actual targets from the surrounding noise signals.
Noise:Signal noise is an internal source of random variations in the signal, which is inherently generated to some degree by all electronic components. Noise typically appears as random variations superimposed on the desired echo signal received in the radar receiver. The lower the power of the desired signal, the more difficult it is to discern it from the noise (similar to trying to hear a whisper while standing near a busy road). Therefore, the most important noise sources appear in the receiver and much effort is made to minimize these factors. Noise figure is a measure of the noise produced by a receiver compared to an ideal receiver, and this needs to be minimized. Noise is also generated by external sources, most importantly the natural thermal radiation of the background scene surrounding the target of interest. In modern radar systems, due to the high performance of their receivers, the internal noise is typically about equal to or lower than the external scene noise. An
exception is if the radar is aimed upwards at clear sky, where the scene is so cold that it generates very little thermal noise.
Clutter:Clutter refers to actual radio frequency (RF) echoes returned from targets which are by definition uninteresting (i.e unwanted targets ) to the radar operators in general. Such targets mostly include natural objects such as ground, sea, precipitation (such as rain, snow or hail), sand storms, animals (especially birds), atmospheric turbulence, and other atmospheric effects (such as ionosphere reflections and meteor trails). Clutter may also be returned from
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Radar Technology.
man-made objects such as buildings and, intentionally, by radar
countermeasures such as chaff.
Figure 3: Clutter Some clutter may also be caused by a long waveguide between the radar transceiver and the antenna. In a typical plan position indicator (PPI) radar with a rotating antenna, this will usually be seen as a "sun" or "sunburst" in the centre of the display as the receiver responds to echoes from dust particles and
misguided RF in the waveguide. Adjusting the timing between when the transmitter sends a pulse and when the receiver stage is enabled will generally reduce the sunburst without affecting the accuracy of the range, since most sunburst is caused by diffused transmit pulse reflected before it leaves the antenna. While some clutter sources may be undesirable for some radar applications (such as storm clouds for air- defense radars), they may be desirable for others (meteorological radars in this example). Clutter is considered a passive
interference source, since it only appears in response to radar signals sent by the radar. There are several methods of detecting and neutralizing clutter. Many of these methods rely on the fact that clutter tends to appear static between radar scans. Therefore, when comparing subsequent scans echoes, desirable targets will appear to move and all stationary echoes can be eliminated. Sea clutter can be reduced by using horizontal polarization, while rain is reduced with circular 19 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
polarization (note that meteorological radars wish for the opposite effect, therefore using linear polarization the better to detect precipitation). Other methods attempt to increase the signal- to- clutter ratio. CFAR (Constant False-Alarm Rate, a form of Automatic Gain Control, or AGC) is a method relying on the fact that clutter returns far outnumber echoes from targets of interest. The receiver's gain is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant level of overall visible clutter. While this does not help detect targets masked by stronger surrounding clutter, it does help to distinguish strong target sources. In the past, radar AGC was electronically controlled and affected the gain of the entire radar receiver. As radars evolved, AGC became computer-software controlled, and affected the gain with greater
granularity, in specific detection cells. Clutter may also originate from multipath echoes from valid targets due to ground reflection, atmospheric ducting or ionospheric reflection/refraction. This specific clutter type is especially bothersome, since it appears to move and behave like other normal (point) targets of interest, thereby creating a ghost. In a typical scenario, an aircraft echo is multipath-reflected from the ground below, appearing to the receiver as an identical target below the correct one. The radar may try to unify the targets, reporting the target at an incorrect height, or - worse - eliminating it on the basis of jitter or a physical impossibility. These map of the radar's
problems can be overcome by incorporating a ground
surroundings and eliminating all echoes which appear to originate below ground or above a certain height. In newer ATC radar equipment algorithms are used to identify the false targets by comparing the current pulse returns, to those adjacent, as well as calculating return improbabilities due to calculated height, distance, and radar timing.
Jamming:Radar jamming refers to RF signals originating from sources outside the radar, transmitting in the radar's frequency and thereby masking targets of interest. Jamming may be intentional, as with an anti- radar electronic warfare (EW) 20 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
tactic, or unintentional, as with friendly forces operating equipment that
transmits
using the same frequency range. Jamming is considered an active
interference source, since it is initiated by elements outside the radar and in general unrelated to the radar signals. Jamming is problematic to radar since the jamming signal only needs to travel one-way (from the jammer to the radar receiver) whereas the radar echoes travel two-ways (radar-target-radar) and are therefore significantly reduced in power by the time they return to the radar receiver. Jammers therefore can be much less powerful than their jammed radars and still effectively mask targets along the line of sight from the jammer to the radar (Mainlobe Jamming). Jammers have an added effect of affecting radars along other line-of-sights, due to the radar receiver's sidelobes (Sidelobe Jamming). Mainlobe jamming can generally only be reduced by narrowing the mainlobe solid angle, and can never fully be eliminated when directly facing a jammer which uses the same frequency and polarization as the radar. Sidelobe
jamming can be overcome by reducing receiving sidelobes in the radar antenna design and by using an omnidirectional antenna to detect and disregard non- mainlobe signals. Other anti- jamming techniques are frequency hopping and polarization. Interference has recently become a problem for C-band (5.66 GHz)
meteorological radars with the proliferation of 5.4 GHz band WiFi equipment.
Radar signal processing.
Transit time:One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of radio signal (electromagnetic radiation), and measure the time it takes for
the reflection to return. The distance is one- half the product of round trip time (because the signal has to travel to the target and then back to the receiver) and 21 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
the speed of the signal. Since radio waves travel at the speed of miles per second or 300,000,000 meters per second), measurement requires high- performance electronics. In most cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being transmitted. Through the use of a device called a duplexer, the radar switches between transmitting and receiving at a predetermined rate. The light (186,000 distance
accurate
minimum range is calculated by measuring the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter pulse length. A similar effect imposes a maximum range as well. If the return from the target comes in when the next pulse is being sent out, once again the receiver cannot tell the difference. In order to maximize range, one wants to use longer times between pulses, or commonly referred to as a a pulse repetition time (PRT). These two effects tend to be at odds with each other, and it is not easy to combine both good short range and good long range in a single radar. This is because the short pulses needed for a good minimum range broadcast have less total energy, making the returns much smaller and the target harder to detect. This could be offset by using more pulses, but this would shorten the maximum range again. So each radar uses a particular type of signal. Long range radars tend to use long pulses with long delays between them, and short range radars use smaller pulses with less time between them. This pattern of pulses and pauses is known as the pulse repetition frequency (or PRF), and is one of the main ways to characterize a radar. As electronics have improved many
radars now can change their PRF thereby changing their range. The newest radars actually fire 2 pulses during one cell. One for short range (~6 miles) and a separate signal for longer ranges (~60 miles). The distance resolution and the characteristics of the received signal as compared to noise depends heavily on the shape of the pulse. The pulse is often modulated to achieve better performance thanks to a technique known as pulse compression. 22 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Frequency modulation:Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation. Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even with older electronics, than timing the signal. By changing the frequency of the returned signal and comparing that with difference can be easily measured. This technique can be used in continuous wave radar, and is often found in aircraft radar altimeters. In these systems a "carrier" radar signal is frequency modulated in a predictable way, typically varying up and down with a sine wave or sawtooth pattern at audio frequencies. The signal is then sent out from one antenna and received on another, typically located on the bottom of the aircraft, and the signal can be continuously compared. Since the signal frequency is changing, by the time the signal returns to the aircraft the broadcast has shifted to some other frequency. The amount of that shift is greater over longer times, so greater frequency differences mean a longer the original, the
distance, the exact amount being the "ramp speed" selected by the electronics. The amount of shift is therefore directly related to the distance traveled, and can be displayed on an instrument. This signal processing is similar to that used in speed detecting Doppler radar. Example systems using this approach are
AZUSA, MISTRAM, and UDOP.
Speed measurement:Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. At one time the memory consisted of a user making grease-pencil marks on the radar screen,
and then calculating the speed using a slide rule. Modern radar systems perform the equivalent operation faster and more accurately using computers.
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Radar Technology.
However, if the transmitter's output is coherent (phase synchronized), there is another effect that can be used to make almost instant speed measurements (no memory is required), known as the Doppler effect. Most modern radar systems use this principle in the pulse-doppler radar system. Return signals from targets are shifted away from this base frequency via the Doppler effect enabling the calculation of the speed of the object relative to the radar. The Doppler effect is only able to determine the relative speed of the target along the line of sight from the radar to the target. Any component of target velocity perpendicular to this line of sight cannot be determined by Doppler alone tracking the target's azimuth over time must be used. Additional information of the nature of the Doppler returns may be found in the radar signal characteristics article. It is also possible to make a radar without any pulsing, known as a continuouswave radar (CW radar), by frequency. CW target's radar is sending out a very pure signal of a known ideal for determining the radial component of a radar is
velocity, but it
cannot determine the target's range. CW
typically used by traffic enforcement to measure vehicle speed quickly and accurately where range is not important.
Blind speeds:If the target has uniform velocity, the successive sweeps will have Doppler phase shifts of exactly 2 (360) and the target appears stationary and gives wrong radar indication. The speed corresponding to this condition is called Blind Speed. However constant velocity is not possible for any target beyond a
particular time and the echo will be netted in the third or fourth successive sweeps. Of course ECM techniques have reached such sophistication that a target can fly at a blind speed purposefully so that it is undetected by the radar. If a target moves a half wavelength between successive pulses, the change in phase shift will be precisely 2 radians. Hence blind speed / velocity can be represented by the relation. v = prf*(n)/2
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Radar Technology.
where, v = blind speed = wavelength of transmitted pulse n = any integer (1,2,3,..)
The target can travel with blind speed, by analyzing the transmitted frequency and pulse repetition frequency and adjust its radial velocity as per the analysis. However a variable pulse repetition frequency decided by a pseudo random generator used by a radar transmitter will solve the problem of the blind speed.
Reduction of interference effects:Signal processing is employed in radar systems to reduce the interference effects. Signal processing techniques include moving target indication (MTI), pulse doppler, moving target detection (MTD) processors, correlation with secondary surveillance radar (SSR) targets and space-time adaptive processing (STAP). Constant false alarm rate (CFAR) and digital terrain model (DTM) processing are also used in clutter environments.
Radar engineering.
A radar has different components:
A transmitter that generates the radio signal with an oscillator such as a
klystron or a magnetron and controls its duration by a modulator.

A waveguide that links the transmitter and the antenna. A duplexer that serves as a switch between the antenna and the transmitter or
the receiver for the signal when the antenna is used in both situations. 25 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.

A receiver. An electronic section that controls all those devices and the antenna to perform
A link to end users.
the radar scan ordered by a software.
Antenna Design:Radio signals broadcast from a single antenna will spread out in all directions, and likewise a single antenna will receive signals equally from all directions. This leaves the radar with the problem of deciding where the target object is located. Early systems tended to use omni-directional broadcast antennas, with directional receiver antennas which were pointed in various directions. For instance the first system to be deployed, Chain Home, used two straight antennas at right angles for reception, each on a different display. The maximum return would be detected with an antenna at right angles to the target, and a minimum with the antenna pointed directly at it (end on). The operator could determine the direction to a target by rotating the antenna so one display showed a maximum while the other shows a minimum. One serious limitation with this type of solution is that the broadcast is sent out in all directions, so the amount of energy in the direction being examined is a small part of that transmitted. To get a reasonable amount of power on the "target", the transmitting aerial should also be directional.
Radar Antennas:A radar antenna acts as a transducer between free space propogation of guided wave (transmission line) propagation. Its function is to :
1) while
Concentrate radiated energy into a shaped beam in the desired direction
transmission.
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Radar Technology.
2) Collect energy contained in the echo signal and delivered it to the receiver.
These two are related roles. Two parameters of interest are: 1) 2) Transmitting gain and Effective receiving aperture.
These parameters are proportional to one another because a large effective receiving aperture implies a large transmitting gain. For a radar, a narrow beam width is a requirement and this requires a large aperture ( microwave frequencies are most suitable for radar application). Radar antennas are characterized by directive beams which are scanned rapidly. The parabolic reflector is extensively used in radar. Microwave lenses and mechanically rotated array antennas also have radar application.
Figure 4:
Radar Antenna
Radomes:- radome is a sheltering structure for antenna which must be operated in severe weather condition ( high winds, icing, and/or temperature extremes). Radomes must be mechanically strong and they must not interfere with the normal operation of the antenna. 27 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
The design of the radomes for antenna depends upon whether the antenna is for
1) 2)
airborne or ground based, ship based applications.
The airborne radome is smaller in size than ground based radomes. It should be strong enough to form a part of the aircraft structure. It is to conform to the aerodyamic shape of the aircraft, missile or space vehicle, in which it is to operate. In conventional application the radome is fixed and the antenna is scanned. In a rotodome the construction is such that both antenna and radome
rotate together as a unit. Rotodomes are used in ground based as well as in airborne system. A good radome should not distot the antenna patterns. In practice its
pressure can effect the gain, beam width, side lobe level and direction of the bore side (pointing direction), VSWR and antenna noise temperature. The
electrical performance of a radome is sometimes sacrificed to accommodate structural factors and protection. A ground based antenna is normally housed in a radome of spherical shape. The sphere is a good mechanical structure and offers aero-dynamic advantage in high winds, snow or other frozen precipitation I not readily deposited on a spherical structure.
Materials Used:- the first radomes were contructed of a strong, flexible, rubberized air tight material and were supported by air pressure from within. Thin and uniform material used, gave thickness comparable to and high transmission efficiency at almost all radar frequencies. Materials used included single polyneoprene, coated terylene or nylon fabric, Dacron, Teflon coated fibre glass.
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Radar Technology.
Air supported radomes are useful for transportable radars as they can be folded into a small package and can be erected quickly. Air supported radomes have the disadvantage of limited lifetime due to exposure to ultraviolet light, surface erosion and flexing of the material in the wind. Further, the maintainance of internal pressure in high winds is difficult. Maintainance is also costly as it needs regular checking. The above limitations are overcome by the use of rigid self-supporting radomes. It consists of a three dimensional lattice of primary load bearing members enclosed with dielectric panels. The panels can be very thin and flat plastic panel are also used. The supporting frame can be of steel or alumunium members rather than plastic. Metal members have superior electrical performance as compared to dielectric members and are better suited for a larger diameters. A foam shelled radome uses foam materials such as polystyrene or polyurethane. The structural limitations of thin wall radome can be overcome by three or multiple layers sandwiches to get more structural rigidity and broadbanding capacity. Airborne radomes needs sufficient mechanical strength to sustain high speed and aerodyanamic heating. Here some electrical requirements are to be sacrificed to achieve better mechanical strength. A ground based radar operating within a radome has to be properly designed to withstand wind loads, ice formation, rainfall and other atmospheric factors.
Parabolic reflector:More modern systems used a steerable parabolic " dish" to create a tight broadcast beam, typically using the same dish as the receiver. Such systems often combine two radar frequencies in the same antenna in order to allow automatic steering, or radar lock.
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Radar Technology.
Figure 5: Parabolic Reflector
Types of Scan:Primary Scan A scanning technique where the main antenna aerial is moved to produce a scanning beam, examples include circular scan, sector scan etc Secondary Scan A scanning technique where the antenna feed is moved to produce a scanning beam, example include conical scan, unidirectional sector scan, loge switching etc. Palmer Scan A scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving the main antenna and its feed. A Palmer Scan is a combination of a Primary Scan and a Secondary Scan.
Slotted Waveguide:Applied similarly to the parabolic reflector the slotted waveguide is moved mechanically to scan and is particularly suitable for non-tracking surface scan systems, where the vertical pattern may remain constant. Owing to lower cost and less wind exposure, shipboard, airport surface, and harbour surveillance radars now use this in preference to the parabolic antenna.
Phased Array:30 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Another method of steering is used in a phased array radar. This uses an array of similar aerials suitably spaced, the phase of the signal to each individual aerial being controlled so that the signal is reinforced in the desired direction and cancels in other directions. If the individual aerials are in one plane and the signal is fed to each aerial in phase with all others then the signal will reinforce in a direction perpendicular to that plane. By altering the relative phase of the signal fed to each aerial the direction of the beam can be moved because the direction of constructive interference will move. Because phased array radars require no physical movement the beam can scan at thousands of degrees per second, fast enough to irradiate and track many individual targets, and still run a wide-ranging search periodically. By simply turning some of the antennas on or off, the beam can be spread for searching, narrowed for tracking, or even split into two or more virtual radars. However, the beam cannot be effectively steered at small angles to the plane of the array, so for full coverage multiple arrays are required, typically disposed on the faces of a triangular pyramid. Phased array radars have been in use since the earliest years of radar use in World War II, but limitations of the electronics led to fairly poor accuracy. Phased array radars were originally used for missile defense. They are the heart of the ship-borne Aegis combat system, and the Patriot Missile System, and are increasingly used in other areas because the lack of moving parts makes them more reliable, and sometimes permits a much larger effective antenna, useful in fighter aircraft applications that offer only confined space for mechanical scanning. As the price of electronics has fallen, phased array radars have become more and more common. Almost all modern military radar systems are based on phased arrays, where the small additional cost is far offset by the improved reliability of a system with no moving parts. Traditional moving-antenna designs are still widely used in roles where cost is a significant factor such as air traffic surveillance, weather radars and similar systems. Phased array radars are also valued for use in aircraft, since they can track multiple targets. The first aircraft to use a phased array radar is the B-1B Lancer. 31 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
The first aircraft fighter to use phased array radar was the Mikoyan MiG-31. The MiG-31M's SBI-16 Zaslon phased array radar is considered to be the world's most powerful fighter radar . Phased-array interferometry "aperture synthesis" techniques, using an array of separate dishes that are phased into a single effective aperture, are not typically used for radar applications, although they are widely used in radio astronomy. Because of the Thinned array curse, such arrays of multiple apertures, when used in transmitters, result in narrow beams at the expense of reducing the total power transmitted to the target. In principle, such techniques used could increase the spatial resolution, but the lower power means that this is generally not effective. Aperture synthesis by post-processing of motion data from a single moving source, on the other hand, is widely used in space and airborne radar systems (see "Synthetic aperture radar").
Figure 6: Phased Array Radar
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Radar Technology. Frequency Bands.

The traditional band names originated as code-names during World War II and are still in military and aviation use throughout the world in the 21st century. They have been adopted in the United States by the IEEE, and internationally by the ITU. Most countries have additional regulations to control which parts of each band are available for civilian or military use. Other users of the radio spectrum, such as the broadcasting and electronic countermeasures (ECM) industries, have replaced the traditional military designations with their own systems.
Radar frequency bands Band Name Frequency Range Wavelength Range Notes
HF
330 MHz
10100 m
coastal
radar
systems,
over-the-horizon
(OTH) radars; 'high frequency' 'P' for 'previous', applied retrospectively to early radar systems very long range, ground penetrating; 'very high frequency' very long range (e.g. ballistic missile early
< 300 MHz 50330 MHz 3001000 MHz
1 m+
VHF
0.9-6 m
UHF
0.3-1 m
warning),
ground
penetrating,
foliage
penetrating; 'ultra high frequency' 1530 cm long range air traffic control and surveillance; 'L' for 'long' terminal air traffic control, long range weather, marine radar; 'S' for 'short' Satellite transponders; a compromise (hence
12 GHz
S C
24 GHz 48 GHz
7.515 cm 3.75-7.5 cm
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Radar Technology.
'C') between X and S bands; weather missile guidance, marine radar, weather, medium-resolution X 812 GHz 2.5-3.75 cm mapping and ground
surveillance; in the USA the narrow range 10.525 GHz 25 MHz is used for airport radar. Named X band because the frequency was a secret during WW2.
Ku
1218 GHz
1.67-2.5 cm
high-resolution mapping, satellite altimetry; frequency just under K band (hence 'u') from German kurz, meaning 'short'; limited use due to absorption by water vapour, so Ku
1827 GHz
1.11-1.67 cm
and Ka were used instead for surveillance. Kband is used for detecting clouds by meteorologists, and by police for detecting speeding motorists. K-band radar guns
operate at 24.150 0.100 GHz. mapping, short range, airport surveillance; 2740 GHz 0.75-1.11 cm frequency just above K band (hence 'a') Photo radar, used to trigger cameras which take pictures of license plates of cars running red lights, operates at 34.300 0.100 GHz. millimetre band, subdivided as below. The letter designators appear to be random, and 40300 GHz 7.5 mm - 1 mm the frequency ranges dependent on
Ka
Mm
waveguide size. Multiple letters are assigned to these bands by different groups. These are from Baytron, a now defunct company that made test equipment.
4060
7.5 mm - 5
Used for Military communication.
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Radar Technology.
GHz V 5075 GHz 6090 GHz 75110 GHz mm 6.04 mm 6.03.33 mm 2.7 mm 4.0 used as a visual sensor for experimental autonomous vehicles, high-resolution Very strongly absorbed by the atmosphere.
meteorological observation, and imaging.
Radar Modulators:Modulators are sometimes called pulsers and act to provide the short pulses of power to the magnetron. This technology is known as Pulsed power. In this way, the transmitted pulse of RF radiation is kept to a defined, and usually very short, duration. Modulators consist of a high voltage pulse generator formed from a HV supply, a pulse forming network or line (PFN) and a high voltage switch such as a thyratron. A klystron tube is an amplifier, so it can be modulated by its low power input signal. Modulator or pulse modulator is a circuit or a group of circuits in between the trigger source and the output tube stages of a radar transmitter. Its function is to switch the output tube ON and OFF as required. The different types of modulators are :1) 2) 3) Line Pulse Modulator Active Switch Modulator Semiconductor Modulator
1) Line Pulse Modulator:- such a line pulsing modulator corresponds broadly to the high level modulator used for A.M. . Here, the anode of the output tube, or its collector, depending on the device used, is modulated directly by a system that 35 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
generates and provides large pulses of supply voltage. This is achieved by slowly charging and then rapidly discharging a transmission line. The line or network is designed to have characteristics impedance equal to the load impedance presented by the output tube, the magnetron across the primary pulse transformer. The length of the line or number of sections in the artificial line is so selected that the two way travel time of a wave form along the line equals the desired pulse duration. To initiate a pulse, the switch S is closed. The open circuited line then suddenly discharges through the switch and the primary of the pulse transformer supplies energy to the transmitter tube (magnetron). The charging impedence separates the power supply from the line during this discharged. Advantage:- the line modulators are simple, compact, reliable and efficient. Disadvantage:PFN should be changed for a different pulse width. So for
variable pulse requirements in certain radars, PFN and hence fixed line pulses cannot be used. But, active switch modulators are used.
2) Active Switch Modulator:-
also provides high level modulation of the
output tube, but the pulses are generated at a low power level and then amplified. The driver is usually a blocking oscillator, triggered by a timing source and driving an amplifier. Depending on the power level, this may be a transistor amplifier or a powerful tube such as a shielded grid triode. The amplifier then controls the D.C. power supply for the output RF tube. Advantage:- easily variable pulse length, repetitions rate and even shape. Disadvantage:- it is less efficient, more complex and bulkier than line modulator.
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Radar Technology. Scanning And Tracking With Radars:Scanning and tracking radars are more widely known as Track while Scan (TWS) radars. Scanning here refers to the way in which the antenna keeps moving in azimuth and elevation for covering an area which has the desired target. Tracking means tracking the path of the target by means of radar.
Scanning:-
Antenna scans a given area of the surrounding space but the
actual scanning pattern depends on the application. Some typical scanning patterns are described below.
Horizontal Scan Pattern:Example ship to ship radar.
this has the drawback of scanning in the
horizontal plane only. But this type of scanning is useful in searching the horizon.
Elevation/Vertical/Nodding Scan Pattern:-
nodding scan is an
extension of horizontal scanning. The antenna now moves rapidly in elevation while it rotates more slowly in azimuth. Thus scanning in both the planes is obtained. This system is used to scan a limited sector or can be extended to cover the complete hemisphere.
Helical Scanning:-
this scanning helps searching over the complete
hemisphere. Here the elevation of the antenna is raised slowly where it is rotated more rapidly in azimuth. The antenna is returned to the starting point at the completion of scanning cycle.
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Radar Technology.
Spiral Scanning:plane or vertical plane. if limited area of more or less circular shape is to be
covered spiral scan may be used. The area to be covered may be in horizontal
Tracking:-
Having acquired a target through an antenna scanning method ,
it may be then be necessary to locate its path very accurately to predict its future position. This is called antenna tracking. An antenna having narrow pencil shaped beams help in antenna tracking. Automatic tracking is very much required particularly if the target is moving and is to be aimed by a gun and then destroyed. The following characteristics of a target are important.
Range of the target. Velocity of the target(Doppler shift, if target is moving). Azimuth angle of target. Elevation angle of target.
Depending on what sort of tracking is employed, we can have tracking in range, tracking in Doppler, tracking in azimuth, or tracking in elevation or all combined. Just a pencil beam antenna may be not sufficient for accurate tracking of the target with respect to the above characteristics. Auxillary methods of tracking for precise location of targets have to be used. There are three techniques for angle tracking.
Lobe Switching/Sequential Lobing/Sequential Switching:here, the direction of the antenna beam is rapidly switched between two position and hence the name. The echo signal from the target will fluctuate at the switching rate unless the target is exactly midway between two directions. Once the latter condition is achieved, 38 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
the strength of echo signals will be same for both antenna positions, but the angular or tracking error is to be determined. This tracking error(i.e. the angle difference between the reference axis - target axis and the axis of the antenna is applied to a servomechanism unit which attempts to position the antenna beam on the target. When the angular error is zero, the target is located along the reference direction. Thus sequential lobing is used for tracking a target accurately in only one plane.
Conical Switching:-
this is a logical extension of lobe switching in which a
beam from a parabolic antenna, mounted slightly off center, is rotated about the axis of the parabola. Since revolution of solid is a cone as the tip of the pencil radiation pattern moves in a circle, it gets the name conical scan. If a target is present within a squint angle (i.e. the angular difference between the axis of rotation and the axis of the beam), then the echo signal from the target will be amplitude modulated at a frequency of the beam. The conical scan modulation is extracted from the echo signal and applied to servo control system which positions the antenna on the target both in azimuth and elevation. Then the conical scan modulation becomes zero and thus the target is tracked accurately by conical scanning both in azimuth and elevation planes. The antenna is mounted such that it can be positioned in both azimuth and elevation by separate motors. The antenna beam is offset by tilting the feed. The scan antenna beam generates two signals, one for elevation detector and other for azimuth detector which are out of phase by 90. These two serve as a reference to extract azimuth and elevation error. The received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna. The receiver is a conventional superheterodyne except for features peculiar to conical scan tracking radar. One feature is a means of extracting the conical scan modulation or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector in the receiver. The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth reference. Signals in the angle error detectors which are phase sensitive detectors. This angle detector produce d.c. voltage which is proportional to the error and the sign is an 39 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
indication of the direction of the error. The angle error detectors output are amplified and drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors. Thus the angular position of the target may be determined from the elevation and azimuth of the antenna axis.
Figure 7: Block Diagram of Conical Scan Tracking Radar
Monopulse Tracking/Simultaneous Lobing:-
there are four
disadvantages connected with the use of lobe scanning and conical scanning.
The motion of the antenna is more complex in lobe switching and conical
scanning where additional servo mechanism are required. More than one returned pulse is required to locate a target accurately ( a
minimum of four are required with conical scan, one for each extreme displacement of the antenna). The difficulty here is that if the target cross section is changing during a scan interval, because of its change in altitude or for other reasons, the echo power will be changing too and hence the effect of the conical or even sequential lobing will be nullified. 40 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Amplitude comparison are not particularly accurate. The conical scan is very susceptible to electronic counter measures (ECM)
because the scan rate is readily detectable in the radar signal and can be contaminated to compound the track is servo mechanism.
An ideal system would be one in which all the information obtained by conical scanning could be achieved with just one pulse. Such a system fortunately exist and is called the monopulse tracking or simultaneous lobing. Angle tracking in modern radars is usually done using this technique. In an amplitude comparison monopulse system, four feeds are used with one paraboloid reflector. These are four horn antennas displaced about the central focused of the reflector. The transmitter feeds the horn simultaneously so that a sum signal is transmitted. The echo signal is received by a receiver duplexer using a hybrid ring (or Rat Race) to provide the following three signals.
1) 2) 3)
The sum signal A+B+C+D. The vertical difference signal (A+C) (B+D). The horizontal difference signal (A+B) (C+D).
Figure 8: Monopulse Tracking
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Radar Technology.
Figure 9: Simple block diagram of mono pulse Tracking
Tracking In Doppler
When the target is moving relative to radar, then thetre will be a shift in the carrier frequency of the received signal and this effect is called Doppler Effect. The shift in frequency is the Doppler Shift and this is a measure of the velocity of the target. Tracking radars can also track the doppler frequency shift generated by a moving target. This may be accomplished with a frequency discriminator and a tunable oscillator to maintain the received signal in the centre of a narrow band filter. The output from the discriminator is a measure of frequency shift and the spped of the target is a measure of the voltage. A doppler tracker is also called a velocity tracker. Similar to a range tracker except that the tracking gate is now in the frequency domain. A simple doppler tracking system consists of a slit filter error detection system in the receiver chain. The difference between the traget IF and the receivers normal IF determines the
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Radar Technology.
tracking error. The error generated by the split filter circuit is monitored by the local oscillator until the doppler shifted signal becomes the normal IF. Since the ability to track targets at varying angles is physically limited, most of the single beam width radars have one to four tracking channels. A phased array could have hundreds of travking channels. Radar tracking capabilities vary widely and basically depend upon the mission to be accomplished and the radar design.
Tracking In Range
In most tracking radars, the target is continuously tracked both in range as well as in angle. Tracking in range can be accomplished by feeding the output of the radar receiver to two gated amplifiers with their inputs connected in parallel.The gates of these two amplifiers are synchronised with the transmitted pulses in such a way that eaxch gate remains open only for a few seconds beginning at a definite and adjustable time interval after each transmitted pulse.the two gates are so timed that they overlap for a period slightly less than a pulse length. In case the echo pulses lie entirely in say gate no. 1 or in gate no. 2, then the overlap portion corresponds to a range which is either slightly too small or slightly too large as the case may be. The difference in the outputs of the two gates constitutres the error signal which is then used for readjusting the range of the pair of gates so as to achieve an overlap of the gates corresponding to a time delay representing the exact range of the target. With the gates thus correctly adjusted, the two gated amplifiers produce equal outputs and the time delay of the gates for this condition gives the actual range.
Radar Displays
A-Scope Display :-
1)
This is the most popular of the deflection
modulation type display systems which indicates the range of the target. Its 43 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
operation is similar to that of an ordinary CRO. A beam is made to scan the CRT screen horizontally by applying a linear sawtooth voltage to the horizontal deflection plates in synchronism with the transmitted pulses. The demodulated echo signals from the receiver is applied to the vertical deflection plates so as to cause vertical vertical deflections from the horizontal line. In the absence of any echo signal, the display is simply a horizontal line. The first blip is due to the transmitted pulse, part of which is deliberately applied to the CRT for reference. In addition to this there are blips corresponding to: a) Ground clutter i.e. echoes from various fixed objects near the transmitter and from the ground. b) Grass noise i.e. an almost constant amplitude and continuous receiver noise. c) Actual targets. These blips are usually large. The distance of the blips from the reference blip gives the range of the corresponding target while the height of each blip gives the strength of the returned echo.
Advantages and lmprovements:
Range calibration could be fixed or could have various scales with suitable
switching for more accurate range determination of close targets. In some radars, any section of the scan can be expanded to allow more
accurate indication of that particular area. A gain control for vertical deflection can be provided, which allows the
sensitivity to be increased for weak echoes or reduced for strong ones. In the case of strong signals, reducing the sensitivity will reduce the amplitude of the grass.
Limitations and Applications:44 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Only the range i.e. distance of the target can be determined and not its direction as the antenna direction is generally indicated elsewhere. Since echoes returned from one direction only are displayed, A-scope presentation is suitable for use with tracking than with search antennas.
2)
B-Scope, E-Scope And F-Scope Displays :-
the B-scope
display signal amplitude as a function of azimuth. This intensity modulated display has azimuth angle along the hoeizontal axis and range along the vertical axis. Normally used in airborne radar, the B-scope display has the problem of cross range dimension getting distorted i.e. if two targets are at a constant cross range, they still appear at different seperations at different ranges. In another variant of the B-scope the so called B-prime scope, the target radial velocity is represented along the vertical axis with zero velocity indication along a horizontal line in the centre. The E-scope display is similar to B-scope display and displays signal amplitude as a function of range. The F-scope displays elevation track angle error (ETAE) as a function of Azimuth track angle error (ATAE) with the centre of the display indicating antennas beam axis location. The displacement of the blip from the centre is an indication of the position of the target w.r.t. the antenna beam axis.
3)
Plan Position Indicator(PPI) :-
This is an intensity modulation
type display system which indicates both range and azimuth angle of the target simultaneously in polar co-ordinates. The demodulated echo signals from the
receiver is applied to the grid of the CRT which is biased slightly beyond cut off. Only when blips corresponding to the targets occur , a sawtooth current Applied to a pair of coils flows. Thus, a beam is made to deflect radially outward from the centre and also continuously around the tube(mechanically) at the same angular velocity as that of the antenna. The brightness spot at any point on the screen indicates the presence of an object there. 45 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
The distance of the bright spot radiadtingoutward from the centre givens the range or the distance of the target from the radar transmitter while the direction in which the spot deflects at certain instant corresponds to the direction of radar antenna at that instant. Thus a amp like presentation is obtained in true relationship to the polar co-ordinates of the target scanned. Normally PPI screens are circular with a diameter of 30 cm or 40 cm. long persistence phosphors are used to ensure that the PPI screen does not flicker. Scanning speed is rather low , so that various portions of the screen do not get dim between successive scans. The resolution of the screen depends on the bandwidth of the antenna, pulse width, the transmitter frequency and distance of CRT beam.
Limitations and Applications :Distortion of true map position will occur if PPI is used on an aircraft and its antenna is not pointing straight down. The computer processing is used to correct for radar altitude, thus converting slant range into true range. However it is expensive. PPI display can be used in search radars and especially when conical scanning is employed.
Radar coolant
Coolanol and PAO (poly-alpha olefin) are the two main coolants used to cool airborne radar equipment today. The U.S. Navy has instituted a program named Pollution Prevention (P2) to reduce or eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste, air emissions, and effluent discharges. Because of this Coolanol is used less often today. PAO is a synthetic lubricant composition is a blend of a polyol ester admixed with effective amounts of an antioxidant, yellow metal pacifier and rust inhibitors. The polyol ester blend includes a major proportion of poly(neopentyl polyol) ester blend formed by reacting poly(pentaerythritol) partial esters with at least one C7 to C12 carboxylic acid mixed with an ester formed by reacting a polyol having at least two 46 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
hydroxyl groups and at least one C8-C10 carboxylic acid. Preferably, the acids are linear and avoid those which can cause odours during use. Effective additives include secondary arylamine antioxidants, triazole derivative yellow metal pacifier and an amino acid derivative and substituted primary and secondary amine and/or diamine rust inhibitor. A synthetic coolant/lubricant composition, comprising an ester mixture of 50 to 80 weight percent of poly(neopentyl polyol) ester formed by reacting a poly(neopentyl polyol) partial ester and at least one linear monocarboxylic acid having from 6 to 12 carbon atoms, and 20 to 50 weight percent of a polyol ester formed by reacting a polyol having 5 to 8 carbon atoms and at least two hydroxyl groups with at least one linear monocarboxylic acid having from 7 to 12 carbon atoms, the weight percents based on the total weight of the composition.
Types of radar
1) Pulsed radar system 2) CW Doppler Radar 3) Frequency CW Doppler radar 4) Moving target indicator radar
1)
Pulsed Radar System
The block diagram of a high-power pulsed radar set is shown and various terminiologies are defined below.
Trigger Source:-
provides pulses for the modulator. provides rectangular voltage pulses which act as the
Pulsed Modulator:Output Tube:-
supply voltage to the output tube, thus switching it ON and OFF as required. may be an oscillator tube such as a magnetron oscillator or
an amplifier such as klystron, traveling wave tube or cross-field amplifier(CFA). 47 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
If an amplifier is used, a source of microwave is also required. Low power radars use IMPATT or Gun Oscillators or TRAPATT amplifier. Below C band (3.9-8.0 GHz), power transistor amplifiers or oscillators may also be used. The pulse modulated sine-wave carrier then travels via a Duplexer to the antenna where it is radiated into space. A single antenna is generally is used for both transmission and reception. Usually parabolic reflectors with center feed arrangements is made use of.
Duplexer:-
the receiver must be protected from the damages caused by high
power of the transmitter. This the function of duplexer. The duplexer also serves to channalize the returned echo signal to the receiver and not to the transmitter. The duplexer consists of gas discharge tubes, one known as TR(transmitter-receiver) tube and other as ATR(anti transmitter-receiver). The TR tube protects the receiver during transmission and ATR helps in directing the received echo signals to the receiver.
Receiver:-
is usually super heterodyne type whose function is to detect the
desired echo signals in the presence of noise, interference and clutter. The receiver in pulsed radar consists of the RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, IF amplifier, detector, video amplifier, and radar display.
Low Noise RF Amplifier:-
is the first stage of the receiver. It is the low
noise transmitter amplifier or a parametric amplifier or a TWT amplifier. Silicon bipolar transistor is used at lower radar frequencies(below L band i.e. 1215-1400 MHz) and the GaAs FET is preferred at higher frequencies. It raises the srength of the echo signal.
Mixer and Local Oscillator:-
this convert RF signal output from Rf
amplifier to comparatively lower frequency level called intermediate frequency(IF). Thus , in a mixer stage, the carrier frequency is reduced.
IF Amplifier:-
consists of a cascade of tuned amplifier and provides the main
receiver gain. It should be designed as a matched filter to get maximum peak signal-to-mean noise power ratio at the output. A typical IF amplifier for an air 48 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
survillance rather might have a center frequency of 30 MHz or 60 MHz and a bandwidth of 1 MHz.
Detector:-
is often a Schottky-barrier diode which extracts the pulse
modulation from the IF amplifier output. The detector output is then amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it can be properly displayed usually on CRT(cathode ray tube) directly or via computer processing and enhancing. Synchronizing pulses are applied by the trigger source to display device or the display indicator.
Pulse modulator
Trigger Radar Display source
Output tube Local oscillator Duplexer
Detector
IF amplifier
Mixer
Low noise RF amplifier
Local Oscillator
Figure 10: Pulse Radar System 49 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
2) CW Doppler Radar
The transmitter generates a continuous oscillationof frequency fo which is radiated by the antenna. A portion of this radiated energy is intercepted by the target and the reradiated energy is collected by the receiver antenna. If the target is in motion with a velocity relative to the radar, the received signal will be shifted in frequency from the transmitted frequency by an amount fd.the plus sign for an approaching target and minus for a receding target. The received echo signal (fo fd) enters the radar via the antenna and is mixed in a detector mixer with a portion of the transmitter signal to produce the Doppler frequency fd. The purpose of using a beat frequency amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary targets and to amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device such as a frequency meter. The CW radar can be used to measure the speed of automobiles, shells guided missiles etc. It can be used to detect movement of troops, vehicles even in the dark and in bad weather. Unlike pulsed radar, CW radar is able to detect an aircraft inspite of fixed objects. However, practical application of CW radar is limited by the fact that several targets at a given bearing tend to cause confusion. Also, range discrimination may be achieved only by
introducing very costly circuit complexity. Further it is limited in the maximum power it transmits and this places a limit on its maximum range. Also, it is not capable of indicating the range of the target and can show only its velocity. CW radar has other advantages like it uses low transmitting power, low power consumption, simple circuitry and small size. Hence it can be used for mobile applications. It can be used by police radars and also in aircraft navigation for speed measurement and as rate of climb meter. The Doppler effect can be utilized in a pulsed radar system by combining special line delay techniques, the system can be made to determine target velocity and to distinguish moving targets from stationary targets. This improved system is called a moving target indicator (MTI) radar system. 50 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
3) Frequency Modulated CW Radar
The transmitter signal in a CW radar is not modulated. Therefore it can neither provide range of the target nor sense which particular cycle of the oscillations is being received at any instant. This major drawback can be eliminated by frequency modulation of the transmitted signal even though it increases the bandwidth. Since this kind of radar is employed for measurement of altitude in an aircraft, it is commonly called Airborne Altimeter. Here, a saw tooth generator frequency modulates the CW carrier. Thus transmitted signal frequency increases linearly with the increasing amplitude of the modulating signal. Earth acts as a target which is stationary with respect to the aircraft. For a given altitude of aircraft, a known time will be required for the signal to travel from earth to aircraft and hence during this time a definite change in signal frequency would take place. If this frequency change can be measured, an indication of the height of the aircraft is obtained. The frequency counter is switched on first when the modulating signal has zero frequency (i.e. the transmitted frequency equals f) and this signal frequency is picked up after its reflection from the earth and used to switch off the counter. The final reading of the counter will give an indication of the change in frequency and hence the altitude of the aircraft, which is displayed on the indicator. If the relative velocity of the aircraft and earth is not zero, there will be a Doppler Frequency shift in addition to the frequency changed and will get superimposed. This frequency shift provides a measure of the relative velocity of the aircraft. However the time difference between the transmission and reception of a particular cycle will be constant and hence the average frequency difference will be constant. Therefore accurate altitude measurement can still be made on the basis of average frequency difference. If 2f is the range of frequency and T is the modulation period, rate of change of frequency is given by
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Radar Technology.
df/dt = (2f)/(T/2) If the range is R, the beat frequency corresponding to it is given by (2R/c)*(df/dt) = (2R/c)*(4f/T) Since 1/T = fm, the minimum beat frequency to be detected, fm, is given by fm = (8R*f(fm))/c
or,
Rmin = c/8f
This Rmin expression gives the fixed error in range, in the case of radio altimeter.
Applications:-
FMCW radar is mostly used as altimeter in aircrafts due to
shorter ranges and lower power requirements as compared to the pulsed radar, smaller size for aircraft installations and smaller transmitter powers. Typical equipment developed for FMCW radar has a power less than 1W and operates at carrier frequency of 440 MHz with modulating frequency of 120 Hz and frequency deviation of either 2 or 20 MHz.
5) Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar
This radar uses the Doppler Effect for its operation. It is quiet possible the moving target has a range and bearing such that the echo from the moving target get superimposed on the ground clutter. Such a condition can exist in the mountainous region or in close vicinity of modern cities cluttered with tall buildings. Another example could be when a moving aeroplane seeks to hide behind other aeroplanes as in war time, when deliberately, pilotless aeroplanes at lower heights provide cover for bombers racing above. This is done so that the radar cannot pickup the bombers and to avoid antiaircraft action. 52 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
Principle:-
When it is desired to remove the clutter due to stationary targets,
an MTI radar is employed. The basic principle of an MTI radar is to compare a set of received echoes with those received during the previous sweep and canceling out those whose phase has remained unchanged. Moving targets will give change of phase and are not cancelled. Thus clutter due to stationary targets both man made and natural are removed from the display and this allows easier detection of moving targets (whose echoes are normally 100 times smaller than those of nearby stationary targets). The effects of dependance on phase of the echo are:1) radar. 2) Time taken by the radar operator for observing the moving targets is greatly Targets which are too far away and give only mild echoes are netted in the
reduced due to elimination of ambiguities and clutter disturbances. 3) Stationary or slow moving targets cannot mask the faster ones in the display.
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Radar Technology.
Pulse Modulator
Duplexer
fl + fc Power
Amplifier
fl + fc
fl + fc fd
Mix Stalo fl Mix
fc fd
IF Amplifier
Coho fc
Reference Signal
Phase Detector
f
fd
To Delay-Line Canceller Figure 12: Block Diagram of MTI radar system
Radar Applications
In civilian applications:1) Navigational aid on ground and sea (navigation is not affected by poor visibility or darkness). 2) Radar altimeters for determining the height of plane above ground. 3) Radar blind lander for aiding aircraft to land under poor visibility, at night, under adverse conditions etc.. 4) Airborne radar for directing and detecting speeding vehicles. 5) Police radars for directing and detecting speeding vehicles. 6) Radars for determining the speed of moving targets (e.g. the speed of a cricket ball being bowled) automobiles, shells, guided missiles etc. 54 Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.
Radar Technology.
In Military applications:1) Detection and ranging of enemy targets even at night. 2) Aiming guns at aircrafts and ships. 3) Bombing ships, aircrafts or cities even during overcast or at night. 4) Early warning regarding approaching aircraft or ships. 5) Directing guided missiles. 6) Searching for submarines, land masses and buoys.
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Radar Technology.

Submitted by:Payel Nag

Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.

Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.

Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.

Introduction History Development Operation Principles

Reflection Radar equation Polarization Interference Noise Clutter Jamming

Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Udaipur.