Bio test 2:

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM

Prokaryotes: cell wall: o Semi-rigid, permeable, made of peptidoglycan (carbohydrate with amino acids attached.) gives bacteria shapes. Shapes: o Bacilli, cocci, spirilla Capsule: highly organized, firmly attached to cell wall Slime layer: less organized, loosely attached to cell wall Pili: hairlike structures on surface of bacteria which aid in attachment Rotating flagella Endospore: o Protective resting structures, bacteria surrounded by durable cell wall. Resistant to extreme conditions Reproduction: o Asexual in the form of binary fission (one cell divides into two) o Sexual in the form of conjugation using plasmids Archaea versus bacteria: Similar to bacteria in many respects: o Single-celled o Prokaryotes o Small size Different in their: o Cell membrane lipids structure o Cell wall composition No peptidoglycan in their cell walls o rRNA subunit sequences

No known pathogens Extreme thermophiles: heat-loving archaea extreme halophiles: salt-loving archaea methanogens: methane-generating archaea occur in oxygen-free habitats

o e.g., swamp mud, guts of ruminant animals ice bacteria & archaea even so, archaea are not restricted to extreme habitats account for 20-30% of marine microbial cells microbes are microscopic, but very diverse and extremely abundant can we use bacteria to improve our quality of life?

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM Chapter 22: Mushrooms: Can eat raw, just wash off shit. Very rich in vitamin d Basidiomycocetes Come up every once in a while (different when farming and natural) Magic mushrooms! Growth depends on humidity, temp., sunlight Fungal life cycles: three ploidy types Reproduce sexually and asexually (when conditions are good, no reason to smang it) Use sex to provide variation Purpose of being alive is to reproduce o Meiosis in male: testes sperim have one copy (xy) Females: haploid in eggs (xx) New cell formed: one from mom, one from dad Haploid and diploid: two copies o Haploid do not last long Haploid: most fungal hyphae and all spores have haploid nuclei o Single cell with two nuclei o 1n Diploid: diploid nuclei are found transiently during the sexual phase (if present) o Two nuclei in each cell o 2n Heterokaryon: unfused nuclei from different parents occupying the same unit of hypha o Mean different o Once cell: Two separate nuclei each with a single copy of chromosome o Different from one another o n+n reproduction: o asexual: default mode under stable condtions; spores are produced fungus prefer to produce asexually

easier and faster (no meiosis, combining of genomes) haploid (1n) spores are produced my mitosis spores are genetically identical to original mycelium millions and millions of haploid cells no variation produced spores disperse and germinate to produce new mycelium o sexual: usually only under stressful conditions; spores are produced meiosis and fertilization take place produce different spores many mating types possible essentially like having many different sexes or genders o Sexual reproduction in Fungi: hyphae (n) o Opposite mating types: + *@ * @ Fuse bodies together *@ *@ * @ * @

Fusion of compatible hyphae (plasmogamy)

Fused hyphae (n +n) Fusion of nuclei (karyogamy) Fusion produces zygotes (2n) Meiosis of zygote-like structures Divides into four different spores Sexual spores (n) Zygote = (2n) contains pos. and neg.

mating type Meiosis will take + and types and recombine with others to create mixture o Haploid spores may disperse long distances away from the fruiting body In puff ball, blows out spores to try to disperse Fungal life cycles:

Fusion of compatible hyphae (plasmogamy) o Mixes with other nuclei (heterokaryon) Initiates a zygotic phase o Best described as a zygote like Meiosis in zygote-like cells produces spores or cells that will produce spores Karyogomy (fusion of nuclei) Meiosis Spore producing structures Mycelium (sexual) Germination o Plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm) o Heterokaryotic stage (asexual) o Spore producing structures o germination

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM asexual reproduction is uncommon phylum: basidiomycetes: club fungi (giant puffball, shelf fungi, parasitic corn smut) basidia are generally found on the surface of gills Phylum: glomeromycetes: arbuscular mycorrhizae (230 species now) Associated with 90% of plant species Classifications of fungi: Deuteromycetes: imperfect fungi o Eclectic group of unclassified species Before we could sequence genome Never reproduces sexually ONLY ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION o Sexual structures unkown (i.e., no flagellated spores, zygosporangia, asci, or basidia) so these havent been classified o Includes many molds and mildews (which demonstrates that certain commonly recognized groups are not good phylogenetic groups) Functional biology of fungi: Molds: o Many rapidly growing, asexually reproducing fungi (mostly ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) o Ecosystems on Earth would collapse without the molds and mildews (plus many bacteria) that break down organic matter into inorganic nutrients Yeasts: o Many unicellular fungi that inhabit liquid or moist surfaces and reproduce asexually o Most closely related organisms to fungi o Occur in ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and zygomycetes o Free living, parasitic, and mutualistic symbiotic forms exist

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM What is your favorite fungus? Tinea pedis Taxonomic classification: Kingdom: Fungi Phyllum: Ascomycota Class: Eurotiomycetes Order: Onygenales Family: Arthrodermataceae Genus: Trichophyton Species: tinea pedis Transmission occurs through direct contact. The fungus thrives in warm, moist, and dark conditions. (i.e., socks, shoes, bathroom and locker floors) the fungus grows extensions into the epidermis after which the skin responds by increasing skin cell production

Friday oct. 7

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM

Flower structure: Complete flowers: o Sepals: sometimes colored, act as attractors o Petals: often colored, patterned to attract o Stamens: male reproductive parts, composed of filament o Carpels: female reproductive parts, composed of stigma, style, and ovary; incomplete flowers lack one of more of the four parts Wind: pollinated flowers: inconspicuous and unscented, produce LOTS of pollen (hit-or-miss strategy) Coevolution of flowers and pollinators: o Honey bees extremely well adapted to flowers and vice versa o Wind-pollinated flowers o Animal-pollinated flowers Attract pollinators using colors and scents o What bees and humans see is sometimes very different Bees see different wavelengths of radiation (see wavelengths shifted to the left on the rainbow) We see light (visible bc we can see them with naked eye) o 1. Attract pollinators o 2. Stop unwanted visitors using physical modifications (i.e., tubes that only specific pollinators can access) o 3. Ensure pollination is the goal (the bee movie is wrong!!! But try explaining that to a 6 year old) fertilization HAS to occur sperm has to make it to egg but then has to make it in to fertilize. Same thing in plants o some flowers have structures that work mechanically once a pollinator lands on the flower ex.: may stimulate or open up to allow bee or fertilizer in angiosperm gametophyte development: o polygram is multi cellular and all dna is haploid o develop inside sporophyte (parents) flowers, very small and parasitic (cant live on their own)

 rely on plant for nutrition and water so called parasitic o inside flowers pollen grains are the male gametophyte pollen develops within pollen sacs o pollen grain: 2 sperm cells (haploid) embryo sac: female gametophyte, produces egg cells, sac development results in seven cells 1 egg cell (1 haploid egg out of 7) one primary endosperm cell with 2 nuclei 5 cells that degenerate three rounds of mitosis take place giving eight nuclie from one haploid nucleus (only primary endosperm cell messed up bc of 2 nuclei) pollination and fertilization: o 1. Pollen lands on carpel o 2. Tube grows from pollen down through carpel to embryo sac and two sperm cells slide down, one after the other. (like a water slide) problem is there is only one egg in embryo sac. Lucky sperm gets it in. the other becomes primary endosperm with 2 nuclei and is useless. o 3. Two sperm go down tube to egg for double fertilization 1. 1 sperm fertilizes egg to form diploid zygote 2. 1 sperm fertilizes primary endosperm cell to form triploid tissue (grows into huge clump of cells and is used by embryo for fertilization) ***unlucky egg gets endosperm tissue :(*** other mechanisms used by bisexual flowers to avoid self fertilization: o genetic self-incompatibility, gauged by S-genes (50-60 alleles, diploid plant gets two alleles)

9/19/2011 9:02:00 AM Mendel laws of inheritance Laid foundation for study of plants Why study plants?: o World population growing out of control (exponentially) Altering a single gene can increase plants drought tolerance Development of the seed and fruit: The first mitotic division of the zygote is asymmetric (produces two cells; those cells are different) This asymmetry provides the first environmental difference experienced by the differentiation cells and establishes the root shoot axis The sporophyte embryo develops from the zygote The endosperm develops from the triploid endosperm nucleus The ovule integuments become the seed coat Tissues of the ovary (and sometimes the receptacle) become the fruit