Tire foot print analysis This is a brief information about the tire components and the anisotropy of tyre

structure due to existence of different rubber compounds and various reinforcement layers was taken into account. By referring a number of articles it is found that the conventional system according to tire axis system developed by SAE insists use of full tire profile because of the non linearity, but considering less about accuracy and to consume shape and time it is better to make a quarter profile in 2D. Why Start with Axisymmetry? Perquisite Tire material components introduction The main parts of a modern pneumatic tire are its body, sidewalls, beads, and tread. The body is made of layers of rubberized fabric, called plies that give the tire strength and flexibility. The fabric is made of rayon, nylon, or polyester cord. Covering the plies are sidewalls and tread of chemically treated rubber. The sidewalls form the outer walls of the tire. Embedded in the two inner edges of the tire are steel loops, called beads that hold the tire to the wheel. In a modern tubeless tire the seal between the beads and the wheel rim is airtight and the underside of the tire body is coated with butyl rubber to keep the air from escaping. The rubber components have different characteristics in dependence of their functionality. The tread for example gets in direct contact with the ground and has to be much harder than the sidewall. Bead is the portion of the tire that helps keep it in contact with the rim of the wheel. It provides the air seal and is constructed of a heavy band of steel wire called Bead Bundle. It is encased in the tire carcass around the inner circumference Carcass can be named as tires load bearing frame work. The carcasss function is to maintain the shape of the tire and it must be strong enough to hold the air pressure of the tire and withstand external loads.

Body plies are rubberized fabric and cords wrapped around the beads forming the carcass or body of the tire. The cords are usually made of rayon, nylon, and glass fiber for the body plies. The plies determine the strength of the tire structure.

Layers of circumferential belts, commonly called breaker belts, are used to stiffen the tread and strengthen the plies; they lie between the tread and the inner plies. Steel cords used in breaker belts provide a stable foundation for better tread wear and traction, and also protect the casing against impacts and punctures. They provide circumferential rigidity to prevent elongation under the effect of centrifugal force, and thus ensure an almost constant tire diameter under all conditions. They also provide lateral rigidity. By restricting tread movement during contact with the road, the belt plies improve tread life. To make the steel plies, the metal wires must be firmly bonded into the rubber. Perfect bonding between these two highly dissimilar materials is difficult to achieve but essential.

Reason behind Asymmetric-2D

Belts angles are not symmetric with regard to two vertical planes, one containing the tyre axis and the other being normal to it.Beacause of this particular problem, the analysis depends upon the required accuracy. According to the SAE tyre axis system the entire profile is taken into account because of the highly non-linear properties, couplings and stresses on tyre composite cord-rubber structural components. The entire profile was used to analyze the influence of nonsymmetry of belts in regard to wheel. Nevertheless, in the case of static loading, this error tends to be small. And hence we can even use the half or quarter profile for the analysis and transfer axisymmetric analysis results to the 3D model, which also implies that the 3D model is built on the basis of the deformed shape of axisymmetric model. With this approach,firstly the time needed to obtain results on vertical loading gets much shorter. And secondly because static analysis of axisymmetric tyre models is generally expected to yield results on mounting and inflation, such as stresses in bead wires, the influence of tyre geometry and rim size on cord stresses and contact pressure distribution on the tyre-rim interface, initial tyre shape etc. Such models are valid if the loads are also of the axisymmetric nature, as the tyre geometry is. By using 3D models, one can obtain the same results as by using axisymmetric ones, as well as the results on any non-symmetric tyre loading.

And this is helpful since we can avoid of modeling the cluster of strands of small diameter wires hosted inside the rubber, the bead can be modeled with a single cross sectional area. The area Should match the total cross section area of the bead region. Now as this bead Constitutes of steel wires and later we can assign the required properties in the solver. The steel wires embedded in the rubber, the Youngs modulus should be modified on the basis of the ratio of the total steel wire cross section area to the total bead region area. An approximation of half the Youngs modulus of steel can be a good starting point.

Materials and Models used These are the numerous material type used for the tire analysis. 1. To define macromechanical properties of cord-rubber composites, describing rubber-cord composite as equivalent, anisotropic media. The authors who used equivalent media approach, for simplicity often relied on orthotropic material definition in conjunction with solid or shell, large-strain capable finite elements,

2. Hyper elastic material laws such as the Blatz-Ko and Mooney-Rivlin strain energy formulations to represent the highly non-linear behavior of the rubber. On the other hand, for small strains, linear elastic models are used and good correlations obtained with the experimental results of tire vertical and lateral forces. For certain vertical loads and tire inflation pressures, even though the tire geometry undergoes large deformations, local strains are in acceptable limits for linear elastic models; especially if the vertical or cornering stiffness are the main output parameters, which are mostly determined by the reinforcements.

3. Hybrid elements are incompressible elements with Poissons ratio very close to 5. But when it undergoes large compressive stress in the area under the belt regions it sometimes forces the solver to march very slowly thus creating convergence problems. Also the hybrid elements have been observed to work good in 2D model but fails in 3D model. To bypass this problem it is recommended not to use a hybrid material, instead it is advisable to use a general full order element (not reduced order element) with Poissons ration of 0.495 or very close to but less than 5. For Neo Hookian model and Mooney Rivlin model.

4. The purely rubber structural components were modelled using linear, mixed formulation, Hermann elements and the Mooney-Rivlin form as the material model. The material model coefficients were obtained by curve fitting, using material data from three different tests, namely uniaxial, equi-biaxial and planar tension The composite structural components are represented by superimposing the rebar elements for the cord and the Hermann elements for the rubber matrix. 5. For modeling the hard and elastic rubber, the Youngs modulus might not be sufficient and a Neo-Hookian model would be a better approximation.The Mooney Rivlin form has most frequently been employed, as deformations in tyre during service rarely reach 40% and also because of material model stability. A Marlow model can be used for the material instead of using only the Youngs modulus if a test data is available for these materials.

6. The rebar elements are uniform gradient trusses that have compatible uniaxial strains obtained from the solid elements that they pierce .The rebar elements have been defined for the composite structural components: belt, carcass and bead wire. For higher accuracy of the results, two belt layers have been modelled separately. The change of cord direction according to tyre deformation has been defined via user subroutines, based on the code and algorithm,The cord was represented using a bilinear material model and subroutines that detect whether the cord was extended or compressed in the past iteration,

in order to change its modulus accordingly (based on the idea of Conor McCarty, University of Limerick).

The detailed material modules Types of finite elements that have been used include axisymmetric hybrid elements with twist for purely rubber structural components,axisymmetric surface elements with twist for modeling of carcass and belts and ax symmetric solid elements for modeling of the bead wire. The definition of one rebar layer contains cord area, distance between the cords, cord angle and cord material. Bead wire is modeled as isotropic material and the rim is substituted by rigid supports. Rubber components are described using MooneyRivlin form, where material coefficients .Steel , polyamide cords and rayon have been modeled as linearly elastic materials
For rubber structure, both Mooney-Rivlin and linear elastic approximation with large displacement option are used. Because of the stiff reinforcement of the tire structure, strain of the rubber matrix of the tire rarely exceeded 20% strain, Continuum elements are used to model the rubber matrix, and REBAR elements. The reinforcements can be modeled as rebar layers which allows users to specify the cross section area of the strands, the gap between two strands, and the alignment angles of the threads. In real the strands comprise of multiple thin threads but during modeling it is safe to combine all the threads and use a single cross section area for the strand.

of elements were used for rubber parts the element type was solid 4-node axisymmetric, hybrid, with twist; for reinforcement layers the element type was surface 2-node axisymmetric, with twist. The solid elements were grouped into sets corresponding to the areas of tread, under tread, sidewalls, and bead filler.

On the other hand, commercial implicit FEA packages have more choice in element types. Especially composite or layered elements work efficiently which are available in implicit packages. While most of the current studies in literature use classical laminate (or composite) theory and Halpin-Tsai mixing rules. Some models use continuum elements to model the tread and shell elements to model sidewalls. Besides, some of the models use continuum

elements to model all rubber volume and introduce shell elements for cord composite sections.

Meshes are graded in the circumference with dense mesh in the part in contact with road surface and coarser mesh elsewhere. Finally three meshes are selected for three levels of analysis: Easy, standard and accurate. A designer assigns a mesh to an analysis based on the purpose of the analysis. A designer also assigns a material model to an analysis depending on the purpose. To overcome the limitations associated with building a traditional mesh, contact surfaces were introduced, where a fine graded mesh representing the loaded surface was attached (glued) onto a coarse-graded mesh. This allowed for the introduction of coarse meshes at distances further away from the loaded area where the change in stress was more gradual, and far field stresses dominated the response. The use of contact surfaces was further justified based on the primary area of interest being the near surface area under and immediately surrounding the loaded tire, thus negating any possible negative numerical effects of far away contact surfaces.

Depending upon the accuracy required and steps followed it is to be noted that

1. Simplified tread modeling: the tire is modeled as a smooth one or only the circular channels are included in the finite element (FE) model while the other features of tire tread are omitted. If the goal of the analysis is to find the tire forces and moments during cornering or braking, or to find the first approximation of footprint shape, size and contact pressure distribution.

2. Global-local approach: at first a simplified (global) tire model is built and analyzed. Then the portion of the tire is modeled in detail (local model) and displacements and stresses are transferred from global to local model as boundary conditions. 3. Detailed tread modeling: tire tread is modeled in detail and assigned a dense mesh of finite elements. The rest of the tire is modeled in less detail and assigned a relatively coarse mesh. Then the two meshes are tied along the contacting surface. If the contact

pressure on tread surface is to be analyzed in detail, the FE model with detailed tread will produce the output which is closest to the experimental values.

The level of detail in tire tread modeling is also determined by the type of FEA. If tire behavior on dry and stiff surface is considered, three different cases may be identified:

1. Static FEA - only the behavior of the tire subjected to static loads is considered finite element mesh on tire tread may be of arbitrary density; very large densities are possible; the most important consideration is how to merge the dense mesh in the vicinity of the footprint with the mesh on the rest of FE model
2. Steady-state rolling analysis: the behavior of steady-state rolling tire is analyzed using

mixed Eularian-Lagrangian formulation until recently only the circular channels could be modeled with the benefit of having the dense mesh only in the vicinity of the footprint; the method is now expanded to include detailed tread modeling where an identical tread segment is patterned and scaled in circular direction the approach of typical segment patterning necessarily implies the approximation of tread shape; mesh density is limited by model size, i.e. the time needed for the analysis to finish 3. Implicit FEA using purely Lagrangian approach or explicit FEA [7]: tread pattern may be modeled without approximation of tread geometry; FE mesh may be of arbitrary density, which is limited by model size, nevertheless this limitation is very significant for those analysis types. Extra information

The radial designed truck tyres shows up to 30% lower rolling resistance compared with bias designed tyres. Even the radial tyre with dual tread design cap compound with improved tread wear and the base compound with low hysteresis would improve the rolling resistance around 5% over the radial tyre with single compound. Tyres with higher outer diameter and the low aspect ratio improve rolling resistance significantly. Although the natural rubber (NR) is the first choice for radial truck tyres because of its outstanding physical and mechanical properties and adhesion with steel cord, solution styrene butadiene rubber (S- SBR) is being extensively used in passenger car radial tyres to improve the

rolling resistance and the wet grip. Use of dual fillers carbon black and highly dispersible silica with silanes provides optimum of rolling resistance, wet traction and tread wear. Since aromatic oil with high polycyclic aromatics (PCA) is banned in Europe, the tyres for exports should be free of toxic aromatic plasticisers. Steel is the choice for belt and the high modulus low shrinkage (HMLS) polyester has replaced the low modulus nylon cord in radial tyres. Radial tyres with less number plies in the carcass and steel cord adhesion compound with low hysteresis improve the rolling resistance significantly The green tyres are made of material from environment-friendly renewable resources. The green truck and passenger tyres are made, to a large extent, with NR. Trials with the epoxidised natural rubber (ENR) have shown the promise of obtaining an optimum traction with substantial reduction in rolling resistance. The reduction in rolling resistance improves the fuel economy and also reduces the carbon dioxide emission. Apart from rubber, reinforcement in green tyres are made with eco-friendly materials: Carbon black is being replaced with nano silica filler, the petroleum-based textile is being substituted with natural resource-based fibres like rayon, silk, glass fibre, steel cord with recycled steel and fossil fuel-based plasticisers with vegetable oils. Even the rubber chemical content is substantially reduced Apart from rubber, reinforcement in green tyres are made with eco-friendly materials: Carbon black is being replaced with nano silica filler, the petroleum-based textile is being substituted with natural resource-based fibres like rayon, silk, glass fibre, steel cord with recycled steel and fossil fuel-based plasticisers with vegetable oils. Even the rubber chemical content is substantially reduced

Analysis Procedure for static Analysis The preprocessing part of the tire analysis is done in HYPERMESH 9.0 and the solver used is ABACUS.The initial tire geometry is taken from a dxf file containing lines and point data of the 2D axisymmetric model.Each component is then split into its constituent parts contain only one particular component, this is then saved as a IGES file. So from the initial .dxf file we get 9 Iges file. Each file is then imported using the Import option in Hyper mesh and after all the components are taken we need to merge surface so that we do not have any gap between the surfaces. Next a STEP file containing the surface of the quarter 2D axis symmetric is imported. To facilitate the contact between the tire and the road, an element set in the

footprint regions should be created in the inp files by utilizing the node numbers on the surface of the Tread. Also the symmetric equation in 3D should be substituted by symmetric equations. Finite elements of axisymmetric model are grouped accordingly, in order to represent the purely rubber components of tire, like sidewall, tread, or bead filler. Composite structural components of the tire, carcass and belts, are created by embedding of surface elements in volume ones. Inside of surface elements rebar layers are defined, which represent steel or rayon cords. The entity sets of the nodes and elements are made for all the components. The Coulomb friction is defined between bead and rim. Rim is modeled as a rigid surface using axi-symmetric bar elements. Road is also modeled as a rigid surface. Contact is defined in two locations, between the tire and the wheel rim, and between the tire and The road. Several contact definitions are tested to select the most stable contact definition in each location. Contact is defined between the wheel rim and the tire. Internal pressure is applied to inflate the tire and fit it in the wheel. The road surface is then moved toward the tire until the tire-road contact force (road reaction) becomes equal to a predefined vertical load. Inflation profile, vertical tire stiffness, loaded profile and footprint are then observed. Only the rim is prevented from motion. Load is applied as enforced displacement or as a pressure load as outlined later. Tire model is based on cured dimensions. Analysis is carried out in two steps, inflation and vertical load. a) Inflation In this step, contact between wheel rim and the parts of tire surface that would be in contact with it is defined. Internal pressure is then applied to inflate the tire and fit it in the wheel rim. b) Vertical load Vertical load is applied by applying enforced displacement to road surface towards the tire. Road is moved until the tire-road contact force (road reaction) becomes equal to the predefined vertical load. Explicit FEA, which is a must for dynamic analysis where transients play a significant role, may also be used for tire analysis, but it is neither essential nor efficient for analysis of steady rolling tire. While the results of SSRA and explicit analyses may be very similar and in good correlation

with experimental ones, SSRA generally takes a considerably less time to finish .The reasons for such a difference have been found in the smaller mesh size and fewer analysis increments needed for SSRA. In SSRA, finite element (FE) mesh may be refined only in the vicinity of contact area, thanks to the nature of FE formulation.

Dynamic properties are important for flexing movements of the rubber article, e.g., the movement of a side-wall of a running tire. Without good flexing properties these movements rapidly form cracks and, ultimately, make the rubber article fail.

Typical results of SSRA include the following functions: driving force in terms of angular velocity, cornering force in term of slip angle or self-aligning torque in term of slip angle. steady-state rolling analysis (SSRA) using the finite element method, based on mixed Eulerian /Lagrangian approach, is often deployed for tire rolling simulations.

Finite element analysis (FEA) is generally performed on tires rolling over flat surface, in order to closely simulate their behavior during service. FEA results may directly be compared with experimental ones, obtained using flat bad or flat surface tire testing machines or specialized vehicles. However, such equipment is space consuming and expensive and is generally hosted by large tire manufacturers or specialized laboratories. Characteristics of a rolling tire may also be evaluated on drum machines which require less space and are generally more affordable. When such machines are used, a certain level of approximation in footprint geometry is introduced, which becomes more significant as the drum diameter gets smaller. It is also difficult to apply a realistic road surface to the drum, because of its curvature. Nevertheless, it is assumed that if tire rolling behavior is successfully modeled and verified on one kind of surface for a range of operating parameters, it may also be used to predict its behavior in different road conditions .In order to compare the results of tire FEA with drum machine testing results, the finite element model has to be modified, to include the definitions of drum surface and drum rotation. In SSRA of tires special attention should be given to friction modeling, as it has significant influence on the accuracy of the results. The nature of rubber friction has still not been properly explored. In practice, phenomenological friction models are often used, where friction coefficient

of Coulomb model is defined as a function of sliding velocity, contact pressure and (optionally) of temperature. These models rely on experimental data, obtained using various kinds of equipment intended for sliding of small rubber specimens over artificial road surface description of equipment and procedures used for braking and cornering tests as well as for determination of tire tread friction coefficient. The drum is modeled as rigid surface and friction between the drum and tread surface is defined using Coulumb model with viscous stick formulation. The variable coefficient of friction is obtained by testing of rubber specimens on Miniroad.

Using the 3D FE model, the following analyses have been conducted: inflation analysis, static footprint analysis, straight line rolling under the action of driving or breaking torque, straight line rolling in fine increments to find the angular velocity of free rolling and cornering analysis at free-rolling.