VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUH and Accredited by NBA)

MINI PROJECT REPORT ON PARK AID MATERIAL

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF MR. T. RAMA KRISHNAIAH BY M.POORNA CHANDER RAO (08881A0424) SWARNALATHA (08881A0454)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUH and Accredited by NBA)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the mini project entitled PARK AID MATERIAL done by M. Poorna Chander Rao Swarnalatha 08881A0424 08881A0454

Students of Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, is a record of bonafide work carried out by them. This mini project is done as a partial fulfillment of obtaining Bachelor of Technology Degree to be awarded by Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad. The results of investigation enclosed in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Mr.Ramakrishnaiah Assistant Professor (MINI PROJECT SUPERVISOR) Department of ECE

Prof. Y. Pandu Rangaiah

Head Department of ECE

Kacharam (V), Shamshabad (M), Ranga Reddy (Dist.) 501 218, Hyderabad, A.P.

Ph: 08413-253335, 253201, Fax: 08413-253482, www.vardhaman.org

PARK AID MATERIAL

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

M.Poorna Chander Rao Swarnalatha

08881A0424 08881A0454

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Approved by AICTE, Affiliated

to JNTUH & Accredited by NBA)

2012

PARK AID MATERIAL

A Mini Project Report Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

M.Poorna Chander Rao Swarnalatha

08881A0424 08881A0454

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Approved by AICTE, Affiliated

to JNTUH & Accredited by NBA)

2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of the task would be put incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crown all the efforts with success. We express our heartfelt thanks to Mr. Ramakrishnaiah, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, for his valuable guidance, and encouragement during our project work. We are highly indebted to his for his kind and valuable suggestions and of course, his valuable time during the period of work. We are particularly thankful to Prof. Y. Pandu Rangaiah, Head of Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for his guidance, intense support and encouragement, which helped us to mould our project into a successful one. We show gratitude to our honorable Principal Dr. N. Sambasiva Rao, for having provided all the facilities and support. We are thankful to all the staff of Electronics and Communication Engineering department for their valuable support and generous advice. We are helpful to all my friends for their continuous support and enthusiastic help.

M.Poorna Chander Rao Swarnalatha

Contents
Abstract.. (i) Contents (ii) List of figures.... (v) List of tables. (vi) 1. Introduction1
1.1 1.2 1.3 2.

Objective..1 Organization of thesis..................................................................1 Hardware components.2 Resistors..3

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3

Passive and active components..3

2.1

Introduction....3 Theory of operation5 Resistors used in this project..5 Introduction6 Capacitor types...7 Capacitors used in this project... 7 Introduction...13 Diode used in this project..14

2.2

Capacitors6
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3

2.3

Diode..13
2.3.1 2.3.2

3.

Integrated circuit 16
3.1 3.2

Introduction... 16 555 Timer . 17

3.2.1

Introduction.. 17
6

3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 4.

Definition of pin functions... 20 Astable Multivibrator... 22 Applications of Astable 555 Timer.. 27

Park Aid material..... 42

4.1 4.2

Introduction....... 42 Circuit diagram and working....... 45

4.2.1 4.2.2

Circuit diagram..... 45 Working.... 46

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.

Result......47 Advantages ... 47 Disadvantages .......48 Applications...48 Conclusion.....49 Future scope...43

Conclusion... 49
5.1 5.2

Reference........44

Abstract

This circuit was designed as an aid in parking the car near the garage wall when backing up. LED D7 illuminates when bumper-wall distance is about 20 cm., D7+D6 illuminate at about 10 cm. and D7+D6+D5 at about 6 cm. In this manner you are alerted when approaching too close to the wall. All distances mentioned before can vary, depending on infra-red transmitting and receiving LEDs used and are mostly affected by the color of the reflecting surface. Black surfaces lower greatly the device sensitivity. Obviously, you can use this circuit in other applications like liquids level detection, proximity devices etc.

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.2.1 Resistor code Fig.2.2 Resistor color code Fig.2.3 Diode Fig.3.1 Integrated Circuit Fig.3.2 555 pin configurations Fig.3.3 Pin diagram of 555 Timer Fig.3.4 555 Timer circuit Fig.3.5 555 Astable output, a square wave(Tm and Ts may be different) Fig.3.6 Astable 555 Timer input and output waveforms Fig.3.7 Wave forms representing duty cycle Fig.3.8 555 Astable circuit with diode across R2 Fig.3.9 LM324 General Description Fig.3.107 812 Voltage Regulator Circuit Diagram Fig.4.1 Park Aid Circuit diagram

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective
The goal of this project is to design the circuit as an aid in parking the car near the garage wall when backing up. The key objectives include 1. Study of 555 Timer
2. Working and design of IR receiver and transmitter

3. Study of some basic components

1.2 Organization of Thesis

This complete book describes about the whole project. This project divided into several chapters. Chapter I discusses about objective of project and about the components used. Chapter II completely discusses about the passive components and its significance. Chapter III discusses about the integrated circuit used and its features. Chapter IV tells about the circuit implementation and working of the project, applications, and advantages. Chapter V discusses about the conclusion with the future scope.

1.3 Hardware Components used

10

 555 Timer IR Transmitter and Receiver Resistors Capacitors Transistors Diode Led
12V or 15V battery

Connecting wires

CHAPTER 2 PASSIVE COMPONENTS

11

Passive components:
Passive components can't introduce net energy into the circuit. They also can't rely on a source of power, except for what is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a consequence they can't amplify (increase the power of a signal), although they may increase a voltage or current (such as is done by a transformer or resonant circuit). Passive components include twoterminal components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

2.1 Resistors: 2.1.1 Introduction:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Fig.2.1: Resistor code

12

Fig.2.2: Resistor color code Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

2.1.2 Theory of operation

Ohm's law The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

13

This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400 ohms, a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.

2.1.3 Resistors used in Park Aid material Circuitry:

i.

K K K K K M

ii. 1.5 iii. 4.7 iv. 10 v. 33 vi. 1

2.2 Capacitors: 2.2.1 Introduction:

A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When current is applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate. Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals and this makes them useful in electronic filters. Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This is now considered an antiquated term. The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:

C=Q/V

14

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF), or picofarad (pF). The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.

2.2.2 Capacitor types:

Vacuum: Two metal, usually copper, electrodes are separated by a vacuum. The insulating envelope is usually glass or ceramic. Typically of low capacitance - 10 - 1000 pF and high voltage, up to tens of kilovolts, they are most often used in radio transmitters and other high voltage power devices. Both fixed and variable types are available. Variable vacuum capacitors can have a minimum to maximum capacitance ratio of up to 100, allowing any tuned circuit to cover a full decade of frequency. Vacuum is the most perfect of dielectrics with a zero loss tangent. This allows very high powers to be transmitted without significant loss and consequent heating. Air: Air dielectric capacitors consist of metal plates separated by an air gap. The metal plates, of which there may be many interleaved, are most often made of aluminum or silver-plated brass. Nearly all air dielectric capacitors are variable and are used in radio tuning circuits. Metalized plastic film: Made from high quality polymer film (usually polycarbonate, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester (Mylar), and for high quality capacitors polysulfone), and metal foil or a layer of metal deposited on surface. They have good quality and stability, and are suitable for timer circuits suitable for high frequencies. 15

Mica: Similar to metal film, often high voltage, suitable for high frequencies, expensive, excellent tolerance. Paper: Used for relatively high voltages. Now obsolete.

Glass: Used for high voltages, expensive, stable temperature coefficient in a wide range of temperatures.

Ceramic: Chips of alternating layers of metal and ceramic. Depending on their dielectric, whether Class 1 or Class 2, their degree of temperature/capacity dependence varies. They often have (especially the class 2) high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of dissipation, their capacity depends on applied voltage, and their capacity changes with aging. However they find massive use in common low-precision coupling and filtering applications, suitable for high frequencies.

Aluminum electrolytic: Polarized, constructionally similar to metal film, but the electrodes are made of etched aluminum to acquire much larger surfaces. The dielectric is soaked with liquid electrolyte. They can achieve high capacities but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacity especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage. Tend to lose capacity in low temperatures. Bad frequency characteristics make them unsuited for high-frequency applications. Special types with low equivalent series resistance are available.

Tantalum electrolytic: Similar to the aluminum electrolytic capacitor but with better frequency and temperature characteristics, high dielectric absorption, high leakage. Has much better performance in low temperatures.

16

Super capacitors: Made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials. Extremely high capacity and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.

Gimmick capacitors: These are capacitors made from two insulated wires that have been twisted together. Each wire forms a capacitor plate. Gimmick capacitors are also a form of variable capacitor. Small changes in capacitance (20 percent or less) are obtained by twisting and untwisting the two wires.

Varicap capacitors: These are specialized, reverse-biased diodes whose capacitance varies with voltage. Used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

2.2.3 Capacitors used in this project are:

1 100 47

F F pF

17

2.3 Diode: 2.3.1 Introduction:

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

s Fig.2.9: Diode

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward bias direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This 18

unidirectional behavior is called rectification and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action.This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.

2.3.2 Diode used in this project are:

Infra-red LED Infra-red Photo Diode 1N4148

Features:

Hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) package High switching speed: max. 4 ns General application Continuous reverse voltage: max. 100 V Repetitive peak reverse voltage: max. 100 V Repetitive peak forward current: max. 450 mA.

Applications:

High-speed switching.

Infra-red Led Description:

An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special purpose led that transmits infrared rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminium gallium arsenide. They, along with IR receivers, are commonly used as sensors.

19

The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot see the infrared radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether the IR LED is working or not, unlike a common LED. To overcome this problem, the camera on a cellphone can be used. The camera can show us the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit.

PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig.2.10: IR Pin diagram

IR LED IMAGE:

20

Fig.2.11: IR led

IR PHOTO DIODE DESCRIPTION:

This VTP processed P on N planar silicon photodiode is housed in sa clear, T-1 34 flat endlooking package. These diodes contain an integral IR rejection filter, offering good visual response. The spectral response is similar to a photocell and to the human eye, making it ideal for applications where the response should only be influenced by visible light.

IR PHOTO DIODE:

Fig.2.12: IR Photo diode 21

1N4148 Description:
The 1N4148 is high-speed switching diodes fabricated in planar technology, and encapsulated in hermetically sealed leaded glass SOD27 (DO-35) packages.

1N4148

Fig.2.13: 1N4148

CHAPTER 3 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 3. Integrated circuit

3.1 Introduction
In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, chip, or microchip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits. A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. A monolithic integrated circuit is made of devices manufactured by diffusion of trace elements into a single piece of semiconductor substrate, a chip.

22

Fig.3.1: Integrated Circuit Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2.

3.2 555 timer circuits

3.2.1 Introduction The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in many projects. It is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillations. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing! It was produced by Signetics Corporation in early 1970. The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine". The 555 gets its name from the three 5-K

23

resistors used in typical early implementations. It is widely used because of its ease to use, low price and reliability. It is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits which can be used to build lots of different circuits. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8) A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556.

Fig.3.2: 555 and 556 pin configurations Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555. The circuit symbol for a 555 is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labeled with their function. The 555 Timer can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum).

24

Standard 555 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg: 100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555. A 555 Timer can be operated under following modes: Astable - Producing a square wave Monostable - Producing a single pulse when triggered Bistable - A simple memory which can be set and reset Buffer - An inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

The timer basically operates in one of the two modesmonostable (one-shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free-running) multivibrator. In the monostable mode, it can produce accurate time delays from microseconds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangular waves with a variable duty cycle. Frequently, the 555 is used in astable mode to generate a continuous series of pulses, but you can also use the 555 to make a one-shot or monostable circuit.

Fig.3.3: Pin diagram of 555

Timer

3.2.2 Definition of Pin Functions:

Pin 1 (Ground):

The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages.

25

Pin 2 (Trigger):

This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5). The action of the trigger input is level-sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources. The trigger pulse must be of shorter duration than the time interval determined by the external R and C. If this pin is held low longer than that, the output will remain high until the trigger input is driven high again. One precaution that should be observed with the trigger input signal is that it must not remain lower than 1/3 V+ for a period of time longer than the timing cycle. If this is allowed to happen, the timer will re-trigger itself upon termination of the first output pulse. Thus, when the timer is driven in the monostable mode with input pulses longer than the desired output pulse width, the input trigger should effectively be shortened by differentiation. The minimum allowable pulse width for triggering is somewhat dependent upon pulse level, but in general if it is greater than the 1uS (micro-Second), triggering will be reliable. A second precaution with respect to the trigger input concerns storage time in the lower comparator.This portion of the circuit can exhibit normal turn-off delays of several microseconds after triggering; that is, the latch can still have a trigger input for this period of time after the trigger pulse. In practice, this means the minimum monostable output pulse width should be in the order of 10uS to prevent possible double triggering due to this effect. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the trigger pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the trigger current, must also flow from this terminal into the external circuit. This current is typically 500nA (nano-amp) and will define the upper limit of resistance allowable from pin 2 to ground. For an astable configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 3 Mega-ohm; it can be greater for higher V+ levels.

26

Pin 3 (Output):

The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7 volts less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor Q24 has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good noise margin, when driving current-sinking logic. Exact output saturation levels vary markedly with supply voltage, however, for both high and low states. At a V+ of 5 volts, for instance, the low state Vce(sat) is typically 0.25 volts at 5 mA. Operating at 15 volts, however, it can sink 200mA if an output-low voltage level of 2 volts is allowable (power dissipation should be considered in such a case, of course). High-state level is typically 3.3 volts at V+ = 5 volts; 13.3 volts at V+ = 15 volts. Both the rise and fall times of the output waveform are quite fast, typical switching times being 100nS. The state of the output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic state of the latch, and this fact may be seen by examining. Since the latch itself is not directly accessible, this relationship may be best explained in terms of latch-input trigger conditions. To trigger the output to a high condition, the trigger input is momentarily taken from a higher to a lower level. [see "Pin 2 - Trigger"]. This causes the latch to be set and the output to go high. Actuation of the lower comparator is the only manner in which the output can be placed in the high state. The output can be returned to a low state by causing the threshold to go from a lower to a higher level [see "Pin 6 - Threshold"], which resets the latch. The output can also be made to go low by taking the reset to a low state near ground [see "Pin 4 Reset"]. The output voltage available at this pin is approximately equal to the Vcc applied to pin 8 minus 1.7V.

Pin 4 (Reset):

This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+ level; thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", etc. Delay time from reset to output is typically on the order of 0.5 S, and the minimum reset pulse width is 0.5 S. Neither of these figures 27

is guaranteed, however, and may vary from one manufacturer to another. In short, the reset pin is used to reset the flip-flop that controls the state of output pin 3. The pin is activated when a voltage level anywhere between 0 and 0.4 volt is applied to the pin. The reset pin will force the output to go low no matter what state the other inputs to the flip-flop are in. When not used, it is recommended that the reset input be tied to V+ to avoid any possibility of false resetting.

Pin 5 (Control Voltage):

This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider (R8 R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference input, Q13. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc. When the 555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltagecontrolled operation ranges from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this pin, it is possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the RC network. The control voltage may be varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode, making it possible to control the width of the output pulse independently of RC. When it is used in the astable mode, the control voltage can be varied from 1.7V to the full Vcc. Varying the voltage in the astable mode will produce a frequency modulated (FM) output. In the event the control-voltage pin is not used, it is recommended that it be bypassed, to ground, with a capacitor of about 0.01uF (10nF) for immunity to noise, since it is a comparator input. This fact is not obvious in many 555 circuits since I have seen many circuits with 'no-pin-5' connected to anything, but this is the proper procedure. The small ceramic cap may eliminate false triggering.

Pin 6 (Threshold):

Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 28

0.1A, and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either timing configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega-ohm. For 15 volt operation, the maximum value of resistance is 20 MegaOhms.

Pin 7 (Discharge):

This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14), the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7 and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to ground) when the output is low and "off" (high resistance to ground) when the output is high. In both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to clamp the appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Saturation voltage is typically below 100mV (milli-Volt) for currents of 5 mA or less, and off-state leakage is about 20nA (these parameters are not specified by all manufacturers, however). Maximum collector current is internally limited by design, thereby removing restrictions on capacitor size due to peak pulse-current discharge. In certain applications, this open collector output can be used as an auxiliary output terminal, with current-sinking capability similar to the output (pin 3).

Pin 8 (V+):

The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and +15 volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. There are special and military devices available that operate at voltages as high as 18 volts. In the present project IC 555 Timer is operated under Astable multivibrator mode. 3.2.3 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

29

An astable circuit produces a 'square wave' , this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'.

Fig.3.4: 555 Timer circuit

Fig.3.5: 555 Astable output, a square wave(Tm and Ts may be different) The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second. 1.4 T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f = (R1 + 2R2) C1

Where, T = Time period in seconds (s) f = Frequency in hertz (Hz)

R1 = Resistance in ohms ( )

30

R2 = Resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = Capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1+R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1. For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm is less than Ts a diode can be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below. Choosing R1, R2 and C1:

R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k available in just a few values.

to 1M . It is best to choose C1 first because capacitors are

Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as a guide). Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you requires. Assume that R1 is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then you can use: R2 = 0.7/fC1

Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k significantly longer than the space time Ts.

min.) unless you want the mark time Tm to be

If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2. If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k (this is not required for R2 if it is variable). in series

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555 astable frequencies R2 = 10k R1 = 1k 0.001F 68kHz 0.01F 0.1F 1F 10F Table 1: Different frequencies of 555 Timer 3.2.4 Astable operation: 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz R2 = 100k R1 = 10k 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz R2 = 1M R1 = 100k 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz 0.068Hz

C1

(41 per min.) (4 per min.)

With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V.

Fig.3.6: Astable 555 Timer input and output waveforms The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V.

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An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome.

Fig.3.7: Wave forms representing duty cycle

Duty cycle:

The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a percentage. For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%: Tm Duty cycle = Tm + Ts = R1 + 2R2 R1 + R2

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 as shown in the diagram. This bypasses R2 during the charging (mark) part of the cycle so that Tm depends only on R1 and C1: Tm = 0.7 R1 C1 (ignoring 0.7 V across diode)

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Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 (unchanged)

Tm Duty cycle with diode = Tm + Ts =

R1 R1 + R2

Use a diode such as 1N4148.

Fig.3.8: 555 Astable circuit with diode across R2

3.2.5 Applications of Astable 555 Timer:

Modulate transmitters such as ultrasonic and IR transmitters. Create an accurate clock signal (Example: There is a pulse accumulator pin on the 68HC11 microcontroller that counts pulses. You can apply an astable 555 timer circuit set at 1 Hz frequency to the pulse accumulator pin and create a seconds counter within the microcontroller. The pulse accumulator will be covered in later in the course).

Turn on and off an actuator at set time intervals for a fixed duration.

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3.3 LM124 / LM224 / LM324 / LM2902 Low Power Quad Operational Amplifiers LM324 General Description The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional 15V power supplies. LM 324 Unique Characteristics: In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated. The input bias current is also temperature compensated.

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LM 324 Features:

Internally frequency compensated for unity gain Large DC voltage gain 100 dB Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated) Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies 1.5V to 16V Very low supply current drain (700 A)essentially independent of supply voltage Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated) Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current: 5 nA Input common-mode voltage range includes ground Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ 1.5V 3.2.4 Connection Diagram:

Fig.3.9: LM324 Connection Diagram

3.3 7812 Voltage Regulator Circuit Diagram Here is a 7812 voltage regulator circuit, but this is not a power supply with a 12V output voltage and load current 1A. IC LM7812 only serves as the input voltage of an LM723

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regulator IC. So this power supply circuit with a larger load current capability with a variable voltage at the maximum voltage of 6V. Output voltage range of the 7812 voltage regulator circuit is 2.5V-6V with 6A-8A load current. Increasing load current through the transistor BD139 and TIP142 are sourced from the DC voltage of a transformer 10A. 7812 Voltage Regulator Circuit Schematic Here is the voltage regulator circuit is easy to understand in assembling the power supply. Setting the output voltage through a potentiometer (P1).

Fig.3.9: 7812 Voltage Regulator Circuit Schematic

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CHAPTER 4 PARK AID MATERIAL

4.1 Introduction:
This circuit was designed as an aid in parking the car near the garage wall when backing up. LED D7 illuminates when bumper-wall distance is about 20 cm., D7+D6 illuminate at about 10 cm. and D7+D6+D5 at about 6 cm. In this manner you are alerted when approaching too close to the wall. All distances mentioned before can vary, depending on infra-red transmitting and receiving LEDs used and are mostly affected by the color of the reflecting surface. Black surfaces lower greatly the device sensitivity. Obviously, you can use this circuit in other applications like liquids level detection, proximity devices etc. IC1 forms an oscillator driving the infra-red LED by means of 0.8mSec. pulses at 120Hz frequency and about 300mA peak current. D1 & D2 are placed facing the car on the same line, a couple of centimeters apart, on a short breadboard strip fastened to the wall. D2 picks-up the infra-red beam generated by D1 and reflected by the surface placed in front of it. The signal is amplified by IC2A and peak detected by D4 & C4. Diode D3, with R5 & R6, compensates for the forward diode drop of D4. A DC voltage proportional to the distance of the reflecting object and D1 & D2 feeds the inverting inputs of three voltage comparators. These comparators switch on and off the LEDs, referring to voltages at their non-inverting inputs set by the voltage divider resistor chain R7-R10.

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4.2 Circuit diagram and Working: 4.2.1 Circuit diagram:

Fig.4.1: Circuit diagram of Park Aid material

4.2.2 Working:
IC1 forms an oscillator driving the infra-red LED by means of 0.8mSec. pulses at 120Hz frequency and about 300mA peak current. D1 & D2 are placed facing the car on the same line, a couple of centimeters apart, on a short breadboard strip fastened to the wall. D2 picks-up the infra-red beam generated by D1 and reflected by the surface placed in front of it. The signal is amplified by IC2A and peak detected by D4 & C4. Diode D3, with R5 & R6, compensates for the forward diode drop of D4. A DC voltage proportional to the distance of the reflecting object and D1 & D2 feeds the inverting inputs of three voltage comparators. These comparators switch on and off the LEDs, referring to voltages at their non-inverting inputs set by the voltage divider resistor chain R7-R10.
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4.3 Result:
Generally output of an oscillator is given to IR led, when the car reaches nearer to the wall, IR light is incident on wall and reflected back to the car which is received by the IR photo diode, this signal is further amplified and output is produced based on distance between car and wall.

4.4 Applications:

Used as Water Level Indicator. Used in car parking.

4.5 Advantages:

Simple circuitry Cheap in cost Highly reliable No need of micro controllers Can be operated under +12 Volts or +15Volts. Easily operated It uses readily available, low-cost components

CHAPTER 5
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CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion
So we can conclude that this circuit is used for the secure vehicle parking system by indicating the LEDS glowing based on the distance between vehicle and obstacle.

5.2 Future Scope

In the future scope of this project a micro controller and a sensor is connected at the output of the circuit such that it will indicated the place of parking the vehicle automatically.

References

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[1] ELECTRONICS FOR YOU - NOVEMBER 2002 [2] BASIC COMPONENTS ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND DEVICES by

U.A.BAKSHI, A.P.GODSE. [3] 555 TIMER by U.A.BAKSHI and A.P.GODSE [4] Wikipedia

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