Transmission Lines Physical Description of Transmission Line Propagation

Characteristics of two most common transmission lines: TWIN - LEAD Twin-lead is constructed of two multistranded copper or copper clad steel wires, held a precise distance apart by a plastic (usually polyethylene) ribbon. The uniform spacing of the wires is the key to the cable's function as a parallel transmission line; any abrupt changes in spacing would reflect radio frequency power back toward the source. The plastic also covers and insulates the wires. In 300 ohm twin-lead, the wire is usually 20 or 22 gauges, about 7.5 mm (0.30 inches) apart. Twin lead and other types of parallel transmission line are mainly used to connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. Parallel transmission line has the advantage that its losses are an order of magnitude smaller than coaxial cable, the main alternative form of transmission line. Its disadvantages are that it is more vulnerable to interference, and must be kept away from metal objects which can cause power losses. For this reason, when installed along the outside of buildings and on antenna masts, standoff insulators must be used.

Twin Lead - Impedance

COAXIAL

Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (usually a flexible solid or stranded copper wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield layer, typically a woven metallic braid; the cable is often protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a voltage is applied to the center conductor to carry electrical signals. The advantage of coaxial design is that the electric and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. On the converse, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from causing interference to signals inside the cable. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for higher electrical signals that must not be allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.

Coaxial - Impedance

The problem of plane waves propagating in air represents an example of unguided wave propagation. Transmission lines and waveguides offer an alternative way of transmitting signals in the form of guided wave propagation. Transmission lines are typically electrically large (several wavelengths) such that we cannot accurately describe the voltages and currents along the transmission line using a simple lumped-element equivalent circuit. We must use a distributedelement equivalent circuit which describes each short segment of the transmission line by a lumpedelement equivalent circuit. Consider a simple uniform two-wire transmission line with its conductors parallel to the zaxis as shown below. Uniform transmission line - conductors and insulating medium maintain the same crosssectional geometry along the entire transmission line.

The equivalent circuit of a short segment z of the two-wire transmission line may be represented by simple lumped-element equivalent circuit.

R = series resistance per unit length (/m) of the transmission line conductors. L = series inductance per unit length (H/m) of the transmission line conductors (internal plus external inductance). G = shunt conductance per unit length (S/m) of the media between the transmission line conductors. C = shunt capacitance per unit length (F/m) of the transmission line conductors.

We may relate the values of voltage and current at z and z+z by writing KVL and KCL equations for the equivalent circuit.

Grouping the voltage and current terms and dividing by z gives

Taking the limit as z 6 0, the terms on the right hand side of the equations above become partial derivatives with respect to z which gives

For time-harmonic signals, the instantaneous voltage and current may be defined in terms of phasors such that

The derivatives of the voltage and current with respect to time yield j times the respective phasor which gives

Note the similarity in the functional form of the time- and frequency domain transmission line equations to the respective source-free Maxwells equations (curl equations). Even though these equations were derived without any consideration of the electromagnetic fields associated with the transmission line, remember that circuit theory is based on Maxwells equations. Given the similarity of the phasor transmission line equations to Maxwells equations, we find that the voltage and current on a transmission line satisfy wave equations. These voltage and current wave equations are derived using the same techniques as the electric and magnetic field wave equations. Beginning with the phasor transmission line equations, we take derivatives of both sides with respect to z.

We then insert the first derivatives of the voltage and current found in the original phasor transmission line equations.

The voltage and current wave equations may be written as

Where is the complex propagation constant of the wave on the transmission line given by

Just as with unguided waves, the real part of the propagation constant () is the attenuation constant while the imaginary part () is the phase constant. The general equations for and in terms of the per-unit-length transmission line parameters are

The general solutions to the voltage and current wave equations are

The current equation may be written in terms of the voltage coefficients through the original phasor transmission line equations.

The complex constant Zo is defined as the transmission line characteristic impedance and is given by

The transmission line equations written in terms of voltage coefficients only are

The complex voltage coefficients may be written in terms of magnitude and phase as

The instantaneous voltage becomes

The wavelength and phase velocity of the waves on the transmission line may be found using the points of constant phase as was done for plane waves.

Transmission Line Equations Transmission lines can be realized in a number of ways. Common examples are the parallel-wire line and the coaxial cable. For simplicity, we use in most diagrams the parallelwire line to represent circuit connections, but the theory applies to all types of transmission lines.

Propagation equation:

(R jL)(G jC) j
is the attenuation (loss) factor is the phase (velocity) factor Characteristic Impedance equation

Z0

( R jL) (G jC )

Ideal Transmission Line Parameters Knowing any two out of Z0, Td, C0, and L0, the other two can be calculated. C0 and L0 are reciprocal functions of the line cross-sectional dimensions and are related by constants: e is electric permittivity e0= 8.85 X 10-12 F/m (free space) eri s relative dielectric constant m is magnetic permeability m0= 4p X 10-7 H/m (free space) mr is relative permeability

Parallel Plate Approximation Assumptions TEM conditions Uniform dielectric (e ) between conductors TC<< TD; WC>> TD T-line characteristics are function of: Material electric and magnetic properties Dielectric Thickness (TD) Width of conductor (WC) Trade-off TD ; C0 , L0 , Z0 WC ; C0 , L0 , Z0

Using Transmission Line Equations and Parameters Maxwell's equations for the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves on multiconductor transmission lines reduce to the telegrapher's equations. The general form of the telegrapher's equations in the frequency domain are given by:

where, boldface lower-case and upper-case symbols denote vectors and matrices, respectively. v is the voltage vector across the lines and i is the current vector along the lines. For the TEM mode, the transverse distribution of electromagnetic fields at any instant of time is identical to that for the static solution. So, you can derive the four parameters for multiconductor TEM transmission lines, the resistance matrix R , the inductance matrix L , the conductance matrix G , and the capacitance matrix C , from a static analysis. The telegrapher's equations and the four parameter matrices from a static analysis completely and accurately describe TEM lines. Unfortunately, all lines do not support pure TEM waves; some multiconductor systems inherently produce longitudinal field components. In particular, waves propagating in the presence of conductor losses or dielectric in homogeneity (but not dielectric losses) must have longitudinal components. However, if the transverse components of fields are significantly larger than the longitudinal components, the telegrapher's equations and the four parameter matrices obtained from a static analysis still provide a good approximation. This is known as a quasi-static approximation. Multiconductor systems in which this approximation is valid are called quasi-TEM lines. For typical microstrip systems, the quasi-static approximation holds up to a few gigahertz. Using Frequency-Dependent Resistance and Conductance Matrices In contrast to the static (constant) L and C matrices, which provide good accuracy for a wide range of frequencies, the static (DC) R is only good for a very limited frequency range mainly due to the skin effect. A good approximate expression of the resistance matrix R with the skin effect is:

where Ro is the DC resistance matrix and Rs is the skin effect matrix. The imaginary term depicts the correct frequency response at high frequency; however, it may cause significant errors for low frequency applications. In the W Element, this imaginary term can optionally be excluded. On the other hand, the conductance matrix G is often approximated as:

where Go models the shunt current due to free electrons in imperfect dielectrics and Gd models the power loss due to the rotation of dipoles under the alternating field.

Determining Matrix Properties All matrices in the previous section are symmetric. The diagonal terms of L and C are positive nonzero. The diagonal terms of R o , R s , G o , and G d are nonnegative (can be zero). Offdiagonal terms of impedance matrices L, R o , and R s are nonnegative. Off-diagonal terms of admittance matrices C, G o , and G d are non-positive. Off-diagonal terms of all matrices can be zero. The elements of admittance matrices are related to the self/mutual admittances (as those inputted by U Element):

where Y stands for C, G o , or G d . The elements of the impedance matrices L, R o , and R s are the same as self/mutual impedances. A diagonal term of an admittance matrix is the sum of all the self and mutual admittances in its row. It is larger in absolute value than the sum of all off-diagonal terms in its row or column. Admittance matrices are strictly diagonally dominant (except for a zero matrix). Understanding Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines To illustrate the physical processes of wave propagation and reflection in transmission lines,2 consider the line with simple terminations excited with the voltage step as shown in Propagation of a Voltage Step in a Transmission Line. At the time t=t 1 , a voltage step from the source e 1 attenuated by the impedance Z 1 is propagating along the transmission line. At t=t 2 , the voltage wave arrives at the far end of the transmission line, gets reflected, and is propagating in the backward direction. The voltage at the load end is the sum of the incident and reflected waves. At t=t 3 , the reflected wave arrives back at the near end, gets reflected again, and is again propagating in the forward direction. The voltage at the source end is the sum of the attenuated voltage from the source e 1 , the backward wave, and reflected forward wave. Figure 18-1: Propagation of a Voltage Step in a Transmission Line

Propagating a Voltage Step in a Transmission Line A summary of the process in Propagation of a Voltage Step in a Transmission Line is:

Signals from the excitation sources spread out in the termination networks and propagate along the line. As the forward wave reaches the far-end termination, it reflects, propagates backward, reflects from the near-end termination, propagates forward again, and continues in a loop. The voltage at any point along the line, including the terminals, is a superposition of the forward and backward propagating waves.

System Model for Transmission Lines shows the system diagram of this process. Figure 18-2: System Model for Transmission Lines

The model reproduces the general relationship between the physical phenomena of wave propagation, transmission, reflection, and coupling in a distributed system. It can represent arbitrarily distributed systems such as transmission lines, waveguides, and plane-wave propagation. The model is very useful for system analysis of distributed systems, and lets you write the macro solution for a distributed system without complicated mathematical derivations. W vr and W vb are the forward and backward matrix propagation functions for voltage waves; T 1 , T 2 and 1 , 2 stand for the near- and far-end matrix transmission and reflection coefficients. Transmission lines along with terminations form a feedback system (as shown in System Model for Transmission Lines). Since the feedback loop contains a delay, the phase shift and the sign of the feedback change periodically with frequency. This causes the oscillations in the frequency-domain responses of transmission lines, as those in Star-Hspice Simulation Results(b).

Transmission Line Equations in Phasor Form

The basic equations for transmission lines in phasor form A transmission line has distributed impedance parameters. Let the series impedance per unit length be Z and the parallel admittance per unit length be Y. Then the line shown in the circuit on the left in Fig. 1 has an infinitesimal section as shown on the right. Note that the coordinate used is l, which is distance from the end of the line. Using Kirchhoffs laws on the infinitesimal section of the line gives the differential equations relating current and voltage: dV = ZI dl dI = YV. dl (1)

(2)

Figure 1: A general transmission line circuit and the phasor representation of an infinitesimal section of it. Taking the derivative of eq.(1) and substituting eq.(2) into it gives the second order differential equation for the voltage as a function of distance from the end of the line: d2V = ZYV. (3) dl2 Eq.(3) has the general solution V (l) = V +e+l + V el = V +e+l(1 + 0e2l) (4) where

(5)

Power Transmission Lines and Loss Characterization All transmission lines (even the kind discussed in Radiation and Propagation courses) behave the same way once the line length approaches a tenth of the signal wavelength. Due to the relatively low frequency of utility power (60Hz in North America and 50Hz in many other parts of the world), the wavelength is pretty long, so these effects only begin to appear in significantly long (greater than 300km) transmission lines. The classical model is:

Lines of a moderate length (greater than 300km) can be modeled simply as a series resistance, series inductance and shunt capacitance in Power Systems, we often call this model a Pi section (this moniker makes more sense if you separate the capacitance at the sending and receiving ends of the line, dividing them by two). Longer lines (those exceeding 500km) are then an extension of an already-solved problem: they can simply be modeled using multiple moderate-length segments as appropriate. Keen readers will notice that this is, quite simply, a two-port network model: we can consider each Pi section a black box, with sending-end voltage/current and receiving-end voltage/current. Many of us rely on an approximation of how wires behave: in most applications, they have infinitesimal impedance, and so the impedance may be neglected in calculations. However, when we approach power transmission, the voltages and currents are much higher than experienced elsewhere, which can have quite a profound impact on system operation. Surge Impedance Loading Based on the telegraphers equations and the above model, we can determine the characteristic impedance (also called surge impedance) of the transmission line as:

In all transmission lines, for power or signals alike, optimal power transfer occurs when the load impedance matches the characteristic impedance. In Power Systems, we like to relate these quantities to units Power (Real, Reactive and Apparent) because these quantities can always be directly compared regardless of phase angles, power factors, harmonic distortion levels or voltage levels. The Surge Impedance Loading converts the characteristic impedance (ohms) into a power (Watts) value:

If the amount of power being transmitted equals the SIL, the line mutual coupling (the inductance and capacitance in the model) cancels each other out, thus resulting in the line operating at unity power factor. When the amount of power transferred is below the SIL, the power factor is leading (capacitive), and when the amount of power transferred is above the SIL, the power factor is lagging (inductive).

An intuitive model Intuitively, I understand this behavior by thinking about the cause of these impedances, though I am not a physicist, so this intuition is best understood as a useful analogy, not as fact. I imagine lines have some slight twist when installed, giving rise to the series inductance. Likewise, lines are conductors of different potential separated by a dielectric (air), which results in some capacitive coupling between lines. Recall that power loss due to the resistance of a power line can be calculated using Joules law:

Similarly, the reactive power absorbed by (or injected from, if Q is negative) a power line into the system can be calculated using (where X is defined as negative for capacitors and positive for inductors):

The inductance is fixed, but the amount of reactive power absorbed by the series inductance is proportional to the current flowing across the line. On a lightly loaded line, or where the receiving end is an open circuit, the current is very small, so the inductive nature of the line is minimized and the capacitive behavior dominates. Thus, the line is below the SIL and operates with a leading (capacitive) power factor.

Lossless Transmission Line Model As a signal propagates down the pair of conductors, each new section acts electrically as a small lumped circuit element. In its simplest form, called the lossless model, the equivalent circuit of a transmission line has just inductance and capacitance. These elements are distributed uniformly down the length of the line, as shown in Equivalent Circuit Model of a Lossless Transmission Line. Figure C-44: Equivalent Circuit Model of a Lossless Transmission Line

From this electrical circuit model, the two important terms that characterize a transmission line can be derived: the velocity of a signal (v) and the characteristic impedance (Z0).

and

LL = inductance per length CL = capacitance per length This is the basis for the T Element used in Star-Hspice. It accounts for a characteristic impedance (Z0) and a time delay (TD). The time delay depends on the distance (d) between the two ends of the transmission line:

Lossy Transmission Line Model When loss is significant, the effects of the series resistance (R) and the dielectric conductance (G) should be included. Equivalent Circuit Model of a Lossy Transmission Line shows the equivalent circuit model of a lossy transmission line, with distributed "lumps" of R, L, and C Elements. Figure C-45: Equivalent Circuit Model of a Lossy Transmission Line

The U Element used in Star-Hspice is the equivalent circuit model for the lossy transmission line. In a transient simulation, the U Element automatically accounts for frequency-dependent characteristic impedance, dispersion (frequency dependence in the velocity), and attenuation. The most common types of transmission line cross sections are microstrip, stripline, coax, wire over ground, and twisted pair. There is no direct relationship between cross section, velocity of propagation, and characteristic impedance. In a balanced transmission line, the two conductors have similar properties and are electrically indistinguishable. For example, each wire of a twisted pair has the same voltage drop per length down the line The circuit model for each wire has the same resistance capacitance and inductance per length. This is not the case with a microstrip line or a coaxial cable. In those structures, the signal conductor has a larger voltage drop per length than the other conductor. The wide reference plane in a microstrip or the larger diameter shield in a coax have lower resistance per length and lower inductance per length than the signal line. The equivalent circuit model for unbalanced lines typically assumes the resistance and inductance per length of the ground path is zero and all the voltage drop per length is on the signal conductor. Even though the inductance of the reference plane is small, it can play a significant role when there are large transient currents. Impedance The impedance of a device (Z) is defined as the instantaneous ratio of the voltage across the device (V) to the current through it:

Impedance of Simple Lumped Elements The impedance of a device can be thought of as the quality of the device that causes it to transform a current through it into a voltage across it:

The admittance (Y) is less often used to characterize a device. It is the inverse of the impedance:

There are three ideal circuit elements used to describe passive components: a resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor. They are defined by how they interact with voltage across them and current though them:

Resistor, with resistance (R):

Capacitor, with capacitance (C):

Inductor with inductance (L):

When the voltage or current signals are time dependent, the impedance of a capacitive or inductive element is a very complicated function of time. You can simulate it with Star-Hspice, but it is difficult to build an intuitive model. The impedance of a capacitor rotates the phase of the current 90 in the negative or direction to generate the voltage across the capacitor. The impedance of an inductor rotates the current 90 in the positive direction to generate the voltage across the inductor. For a resistor, the current and voltage have the same phase. In the frequency domain, when all signals are sine waves in the time domain, the impedance of a capacitor and an inductor is frequency dependent, decreasing with frequency for a capacitor and increasing with frequency for an inductor. The impedance of a resistor is constant with frequency. In the real world of finite dimensions and engineered materials, ideal circuit elements have parasitics associated with them, which cause them to behave in complex ways that are very apparent at high frequencies. Characteristic Impedance A controlled impedance transmission line is a pair of conductors that have a uniform cross section and uniform distribution of dielectric materials down their length. A short segment, x, of the transmission line has a small capacitance associated with it, C, which is the capacitance per length, CL, times the x:

When a voltage signal is introduced at one end, the voltage between the conductors induces an electric that propagates the length of the line at the speed of light in the dielectric. As the voltage signal moves down the line, each new section of line charges up. The new section of line, x, is charged up in a time t:

If the voltage (V) moves down the line at a constant speed and the capacitance per length is uniform throughout the line, then the constant voltage applied to the front end draws a constant charging current (I):

This constant voltage with constant current has the behavior of a constant impedance (Z):

The impedance is determined by the speed of the signal and the capacitance per length of the pair of conductors, both intrinsic properties of the line. This intrinsic impedance is termed the characteristic impedance of the line (Z0). If a measurement is made at one end of the line in a short time compared to the round trip time delay, the line behaves like a resistor with a resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Transmission line effects are only important when rise times are comparable or shorter than the round trip time delay. For example, if the rise time of a device is 1 ns, and it drives an interconnect trace in FR4 which is longer than three inches, the load on the device during the risetime is purely resistive. For CMOS devices, which are used to drive high resistance loads, the typical 50 ohm resistance they see initially can significantly distort the waveform from what is expected. It is only during the initial surge of the voltage that a transmission line behaves as a constant impedance, with a value equal to its characteristic impedance. For this reason the characteristic impedance of a line is also called the surge impedance. The surge time during which the impedance is constant is the round trip time of flight, or twice the time delay. Reflections from the far end complicate the electrical behavior of the line after the surge time. The instantaneous impedance measured at the front end of a transmission line is a complicated function of time. It depends on the nature of the terminations at the far end. When the line is shunted to ground with a resistor of value equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, there is no reflection back, and the front end of the line behaves as a resistive load. When the termination at the far end is open, the impedance at the front end starts out at the characteristic impedance and eventually, after multiple reflections, approaches an infinite impedance. During some periods the instantaneous impedance may be zero. These transient effects are fully simulated with T Elements and U Elements in Star-Hspice.

Transmission Lines: Example Problem

A 220-kV, 150 MVA, 60-Hz, three-phase transmission line is 140 km long. The characteristic parameters of the transmission line are: r = 0.09 /km; x = 0.88 /km; y =4.110-6 S/km where, r is the resistance per kilometer, x is the reactance per kilometer, y is the shunt admittance per kilometer. The voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is 210 kV. Although this transmission line would normally be considered a medium-length transmission line, we will treat it as short line: a) What is series impedance and shunt impedance of the transmission line? b) What is the sending end voltage if the line is supplying rated voltage and apparent power at 0.85 PF lagging? At unity PF? At 0.85 PF leading? c) What is the voltage regulation of the transmission line for each of the cases in (b)? d) What is the efficiency of the transmission line when it is supplying rated apparent power at 0.85 PF lagging? Transmission line

Solution: The series resistance, series reactance, and shunt admittance of the transmission line:

The current out of this transmission line is given by. Note that the per-phase equivalent circuit implicitly assumes a wye (Y) connection, so the current is the same in phase or line configuration.

The phase voltage of the transmission line is

Since the transmission line is considered as short, the admittance (or shunt capacitance) may be ignored. This produces in a per phase transmission line model consisting of a series resistance and inductance only. The phase voltage at the sending end of the line when the power factor is 0.85 lagging will be

The resulting line voltage at the sending end (0.85 PF lagging) is

The phase voltage at the sending end of the line when the power factor is unity will be

The resulting line voltage at the sending end (unity PF) is

The phase voltage at the sending end of the line when the power factor is 0.85 leading

The resulting line voltage at the sending end (0.85 leading) is

The voltage regulation of a transmission line is given by

The voltage regulation at 0.85 PF lagging; PF unity; and 8.5 PF leading:

The output power from the transmission line at 0.85 PF lagging

The input power from the transmission line

The transmission line efficiency at full load and 0.85 PF lagging is

References:

http://www.ece433notes2.com http://www.fourier-series.com/rf-concepts/flash_programs/Reflection/index.html http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/docs/C-tutorial.pdf

http://web.mit.edu/6.763/www/FT03/Lectures/Lecture7.pdf

www.eece.ksu.edu/~bala/notes/emt/tlines.pdf