The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 21, No.

5, April 2010, 742753

Relationships of work family conict with business and marriage outcomes in Taiwanese copreneurial women
Melien Wua*, Chen-Chieh Changb and Wen-Long Zhuangc
a

Department of Business Administration, National Chiayi University, Chiayi City, Taiwan; bSchool of Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li, Taiwan; cDepartment of Business Administration, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung Li, Taiwan This study used bidirectional interrole conict measures to examine the permeability of work and family domains, and to further investigate the relationships of work family conict with business and marriage outcomes in copreneurial women. Analytical results from 202 Taiwanese copreneurial women were summarized as follows: (1) family boundaries were more permeable than work domains; (2) work family conict is negatively related to perceived business success and marriage satisfaction; and (3) work-to-family conict predicts marriage satisfaction, whereas family-to-work conict predicts perceived business success. The results were interpreted and implications were discussed in terms of consulting strategies of work family management strategies and participative management techniques in family business. Keywords: business success; copreneurship; marriage satisfaction; work family conict

Introduction Role expectations made of the individual in the work and the family domains are often incompatible. Some consultants to family business report that conict may be considered as one of the fastest growing areas of concern in family business (Cosier and Harvey 1998). Specically, work family conict, a type of interrole conict, has been proven to be negatively related to various variables associated with employee work life, home life, general health, and well-being (see Allen, Herst, Bruck and Sutton 2000 for a review). Several studies noted that work family conict was bidirectional and the work domains were more predominant than family domains (Frone, Yardley and Markel 1997; Eagle, Miles and Icenogle 1997; Aryee, Fields and Luk 1999; Allen et al. 2000). However, most of the previous studies have focused on dual-career employees and viewed work family conict as a unidirectional construct. The present study adopted the conceptualization of bidirectional work family conict and focused on women who share the business responsibility with their husbands. The number of businesses run jointly by married couples is increasing worldwide (Montgomery and Sinclair 2000; Smith 2000; Taiwanese Ministry of Economy 2004). Barnett and Barnett (1988) coined the phrase copreneurs to describe such business/marriage partnership. Despite a lack of consistent denitions, most researchers dened copreneurial businesses, or copreneurship, based on the involvement of both husband and wife in the business (for example, Smith 2000). Several surveys indicated that in copreneurial businesses: (1) the wives were as involved in the business as the

*Corresponding author. Email: melien@mail.ncyu.edu.tw

ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online q 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09585191003658912 http://www.informaworld.com

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husbands; (2) romantic relationship between husband and wife was strengthened by involvement in a copreneurial venture; and (3) achieving greater control over their lives was the main factor attracting copreneurs to self-employment (Marshack 1994; Barnett and Barnett 1988; Fitzgerald and Muske 2002). To date, the empirical literature has not fully supported the above suppositions (Fitzgerald and Muske 2002). As a subset of dual-career couples and a subset of family businesses, copreneurial couples represent the dynamic interaction of the system of love and work (Marshack 1994). Copreneurial businesses typically depend on close personal relationships, and tensions resulting from the mixing of work and family roles may jeopardize these relationships. Some management theorists have even argued that the involvement of family members causes ineffective business practice, leading to corruption and nonrational behavior (Dyer, Jr. 1986). For women in particular, these issues raise questions regarding whether running a business together with their husbands would result in business success and improved marital relationships. This study used the bidirectional work family conict measures to determine whether work and family domains were asymmetrically permeable for copreneurial women, and further investigated the consequences of work family conict, namely perceived business success and marriage satisfaction. Since much of the literature on managing work and family life for copreneurs is either theoretical (for example Foley and Powell 1997) or anecdotal (for example, Smith 2000), the present study is unique in that the data are collected from a large and nationally representative sample of Taiwanese family businesses. Literature and hypotheses As it has become more common for women with children to be employed, the images of the traditional nuclear family (that is, two parents with the mother not employed outside the home) are being altered worldwide. The changed images include new roles as well as role exchanges for men and women. Frone and Rice (1987) noted that with the freedom to assume a great variety of social roles (family and work) there was a greater potential for interrole conict that both genders must learn to manage. Pleck (1977) also posited that women, because of responsibilities at home, would have greater interferences from family to work than men. Greenhaus and Beutell (1985, p. 77) dened work family conict (WFC) as a form of inter-role conict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. A bidirectional conceptualization of WFC had been adopted by many studies (e.g., Frone et al. 1997; Fu and Schaffer 2001). Specically, a distinction was made between the extent to which work interferes with family life (work-to-family conict, WIF) and the extent to which family life interferes with work (family-to-work conict, FIW). However, Kanter (1977) noted that most analyses of work and family have viewed work as setting the conditions for family life. Evidence has also accumulated to demonstrate the spill-over effect of work stress to family domains. A study of the relative permeability of work and family boundaries among 631 employed household residents of upstate New York revealed that both genders reported experiences of WIF nearly three times more than experiences of FIW (Frone, Russell and Cooper 1992). Another study supported the above contention that family boundaries were more permeable than work boundaries in that demands of the work role were permitted to intrude more so in ones family role than vice versa (Eagle et al. 1997). Nevertheless, the commonly accepted denition and model of work family conict was based on the

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assumptions that the work and family domains are physically separate and the primary role senders in each domain (ones superior and ones spouse) do not interact. Whether the existing denition and models of WFC can be applied to the unique relationship of business and marriage partners in which work and family roles are shared and interchangeable deserve further investigation. While previous research documents that women experience greater conict between work and family roles than men (Welter 2004; Frone et al. 1992) and the negative results of this conict on the well-being of women (Hammer, Saksvik, Nytro, Torvain and Bayazit 2004), little work has examined the WFC of copreneurial women. Copreneurs primarily seek self-employment in order to achieve greater control over their lives. For women, it means exibility to integrate work and family responsibility more effectively, and thus reduce the juggling and struggling that are commonly experienced by working women (Way 1999; Smith 2000). Therefore, this study hypothesized that copreneurial women have even control over the work and family demands. The family system theory, which was derived from the broader general system theory, suggested that an individuals attitude and behavior were signicantly affected by the actions of other primary actors, for example the family members. Taking a family systems perspective to study work family conict of copreneurial women, whose lives represent the dynamic interrelationship of the domains of family and work, should enhance understanding of these two very important spheres of our lives. The literature on copreneurs indicates that copreneurs do not develop egalitarian relationships. An empirical study of 83 copreneurial couples and 71 dual-career couples revealed that dual-career couples shared household responsibilities more evenly on the basis of preference or ability (Marshack 1994). In contrast, copreneurial partners adhered to traditional sex role orientations at home and at work, with womens family roles reinforced in the workplace, regardless of their job title. In other words, provided that both copreneurs adhere to traditional models of masculinity and femininity, they can satisfy the competing demands of family and work. Otherwise, tensions may occur when a copreneurial woman devotes too much time to work and permits work roles to interfere with her family roles. Based on the above discussion, this study proposes the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1: Work and family boundaries are symmetrically permeable in that WIF is as prevalent as FIW for copreneurial women.

The concept of well-being has primarily been addressed from the subjective psychological perspective (Samad 2006). The subjective psychological well-being is measured by asking the feelings of respondents toward certain things, mainly, satisfaction of family and work. According to rational arguments, when an individual spends more time on the roles associated with a specic domain, then less time will be available for other domains (Keith and Schafer 1984). The extensive involvement of women in work may thus arouse individual anxiety and guilt regarding performance in traditional family roles, and hence increasing work family conict (Staines and Pleck 1983). Copreneurial women suffer a severe role ambiguity and lack clear information regarding job expectation and the workings of reward systems. To deal with this ambiguity, resources may be shifted between family and work. As such, Foley and Powell (1997) asserted that work family conict experienced within a business marriage partnership had important consequences, which were experienced by the individual and the couple as a unit. The consequences, according to the psychological well-being theory, include the judgment of ones life both on and off the job (Wright and Bonett 2007). This study thus hypothesized that

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work family conict is negatively related with satisfaction of marriage and ultimately, with the success of the business. Hypothesis 2: WFC is negatively related with business and marriage outcomes.

Recent research on the two dimensions of WFC indicated that they were each associated with unique work- and family- related antecedents and outcomes (Frone et al. 1997; Fu and Shaffer 2001; Bruck, Allen and Spector 2002). Specically, WIF was related with family distress while FIW was related with work distress. Sensitization theory suggests that womens self-concept is associated with their performance of the parenting and spouse roles (Pleck 1979). Because women often scale back their involvement in business to meet family demands, they feel guilty owing to their inability to devote themselves fully to their family businesses (Danes and Olson 2003). Therefore, high work-to-family conict is likely to lead copreneurial women to feel less satised with their marital relationship; while high family-to-work conict is likely to lead copreneurial women to perceive their family business less successful (Higgins, Duxbury and Irving 1992; Foley and Powell 1997). Accordingly, this study proposed the following two hypotheses: Hypothesis 3: Hypothesis 4: WIF accounts for additional variance in marriage satisfaction over and above that accounted for by FIW. FIW accounts for additional variance in business success over and above that accounted for by WIF.

Research method Participants This study denes copreneurs as married couples or couples in marriage-like partnership who jointly manage a business, and who share commitment to and responsibility for the venture. This denition is modied from Danes and Olson (2003) and does not consider joint ownership as a criterion for copreneurship. Operationally, copreneurial women must work in the relevant enterprise for at least 40 hours a week to be considered as involving in the business full-time. Participants were located via the listings of Taiwans chambers of commerce. A preliminary survey inquiring whether the female partner was involved in business activities was distributed to a random sample of 1,500 small- and medium-sized enterprises. A total of 454 women who met the denition of copreneurial wives returned the questionnaire. A second questionnaire was then issued and it included the study measures and the demographic items. This procedure yielded 202 usable questionnaires, representing a 44.5% response rate out of 454 women who received the second questionnaire. Respondents age ranged from 27 to 71 years old, with a mean age of 41.18 (S.D. 10.27) years old. This age distribution resembled that of Fitzgerald and Muskes (2002) US study. Most of the respondents were either junior college graduates (35.1%) or high school graduates (31.3%) and 53% had children living at home. Full descriptive statistics are shown in Table 1. Non-response bias was assessed by comparing the samples returned during the early and later phases (Armstrong and Overton 1977). The survey was administered over a three month period with respondents being followed up by telephone during the third month. The pre follow-up and the post follow-up responses were compared, revealing that the mean of all variables failed to reach a signicant difference level of 0.05. The non-response bias thus was extremely low.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics, correlation, and reliability. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Variable

Means

S.D

M. Wu et al.
(.87) .20**

1. Age 2. Education 3. Child at home 4. Masculinity 5. Femininity 6. WFC 7. WIF 8. FIW 9. Bus. Success 10. Marriage Sat. 2 .30** 2 .45** 2 .12 2 .06 2 .26** 2 .27** 2 .13 .23** .00 .16* .00 2 .15** .15** .12 .14 .04 2 .08 .07 .04 .19** .19** .13 2.18* .04 (.94) 2.04 2.08 .00 .01 .18* (.87) .76** .78** 2 .42** 2 .25** (.91) .27** .00 .08 2.02 2.05 .00

41.18 2.72 .53 4.06 4.28 2.76 3.01 2.49 4.51 4.81

10.27 .99 .50 .88 .95 .77 .96 .88 1.19 1.24

(.84) .41** 2 .27** 2 .34**

(.83) 2 .42** 2 .06

Notes: n 202; *p , 0.05, **p , 0.01; education 0 high school or below, 1 college or above; child at home 0 no, 1 yes; reliability factor in italic and bold brackets is Cronbachs a.

The International Journal of Human Resource Management Measures WFC

747

The scale used to measure WFC was a combination of eight items used by Guteck, Searle and Klepa (1991), and two items used by Frone et al. (1992). This scale mixed time-based and strain-based forms of conict, and has been used in past research (Nielson, Carlson and Lankau 2001; Frone et al. 1997). Among the 10 items, ve measured WIF and the other ve measured FIW, together yielding a 10-item WFC scale. To ensure the cross-cultural validity of instruments, this study translated the WFC measures into Chinese via back-translation (Brislin 1970). First, a team member of the present study who had lived in the United States for 13 years translated the original instrument into Chinese. Second, a group of 10 EMBA students rated the construct appropriateness of the items on a 5-point scale. The purpose of this step was to obtain both equivalence of item meanings and discriminant power of those items. Since the back translation operated as a lter in which non-equivalent terms were screened out (Sechrest, Fay and Zaide 1972), this procedure was taken. Third, a Chinese professor who specialized in English Literature translated the Chinese version of the WFC instrument back into English. Then, we checked for equivalence of item meanings between the original and back-translated English version by rating item similarities on a 5-point scale. The mean scores for 10 items were greater than 3.70, suggesting that the two English versions were close to equivalent. Item responses were averaged for subscales with higher scores indicating greater WFC. Responses were made on a 5-point scale. The valence-based response rating set, ranged from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Sample items from each of the subscales included, for WIF, My work often takes up time that Id like to spend with my family or I am often so emotionally drained when I get home from work that I cannot contribute to my family; and FIW, The time I spend on family responsibilities often interferes with my work responsibilities or Because I am often stressed by my family responsibilities, I have difculty concentrating on my work. Nielson et al. (2001) reported internal consistency reliabilities of 0.88 and 0.83 for WIF and FIW scales, respectively. Business and marriage outcomes Cooper and Artz (1995) suggested that the subjective indicator of overall business success provided a view into issues of entrepreneurial commitment and the desire to work through tough times. This study used a single item to measure perceived overall business success. Danes and Olson (2003) also used this item to compare the perception of overall business success between business managers and household managers. Respondents were asked to rate their perception of overall business success on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Not successful at all) to 5 (Very successful). Marriage satisfaction was measured using a 5-item scale developed by Wu (1998). Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Higher scores indicated a greater degree of satisfaction. Sample items assessing marriage satisfaction included I have no regret concerning my marriage, and My married life has exceeded my expectations. Wu (1998) obtained a satisfactory alpha value of 0.86. Control variables The current study controlled background variables that were found to correlate with job satisfaction and with WFC in previous study, including age, education, and child living

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at home (for example, Fu and Schaffer 2001; Nielson et al. 2001; Bruck et al. 2002). Gender role attitude was also controlled to eliminate the potential confounding effects. Gender role attitude was measured using the modied Spence Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) (Spence and Robert 1978). This measure had been identied as preferable to the Bem (1974) measure, and was modied by Lee (1981) to make the wording suitable for Chinese-speaking participants. It is a 6-point (1 Strongly disagree to 6 Strongly agree), 30-item scale that included 15 items measuring masculinity and 15 items measuring femininity. Individual item responses were averaged for subscales with higher scores indicating higher orientation to specic gender attitude. Wu (1998) obtained alpha values of 0.84 for femininity and 0.82 for masculinity in her study of Taiwanese female managers.

Measure assessment This work used Cronbachs coefcient alpha (a) to assess the reliability of the measures as most studies did. Each scale had satisfactory reliability with a above 0.70. Table 1 provides means, standard deviations, and correlations for the variables used in the study. Reliabilities are located along the diagonal of the correlation matrix. Furthermore, this study examined convergent and discriminant validity using conrmatory factor analysis on LISREL VII (Joreskog and Sorbom 1982). Evidence of convergent validity is found in the parameter estimates and t-values. The parameter estimates are high in value and the t-values are statistically signicant (greater than 2.0), meeting the criteria proposed by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) for convergent validity. The proportion of variation in the indicators captured by the underlying construct should be higher than the variance due to measurement error (Fornell and Larcker 1981). The values of the average variance extracted are 0.51 for WFC, 0.53 for WIF, 0.52 for FIW, 0.58 for masculinity, and 0.57 for femininity. All the average variances extracted met the criteria of 0.5, indicating satisfactory discriminant validities. Results Hypothesis 1 was concerned with the symmetrical permeability of WIF and FIW. We used a paired t test to test the signicance of mean differences between WIF and FIW. Prevalence rates indicated the level of frequency with which event interferences occurred which were associated with FIW or WIF, and were based on the percentage of respondents reporting WIF or FIW at least no opinion, that is, having a mean score equal to or greater than 3.0. Although this study adopted the valence-based responses anchor sets, each question contained the word often to represent the frequency of interferences. With the degree of freedom equal to 198, the means and prevalence rates for each type of conict indicated that WIF (M 3.01, SD 0.96, PR 56.3%) was signicantly more predominant than FIW (M 2.49, SD 0.88, PR 29.7%) with t value equaling to 7.09 (p , 0.001). Hypothesis 1 was thus not supported. This study conducted three hierarchical regression analyses to test Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4. Dummy variables were created for education (base level high school or below) and child at home (based level no). Hypothesis 2 proposed that the global work family conict would be negatively related to perceived business success and marriage satisfaction (see Table 2). Background variables and gender-role attitude were entered into the regression equations in Step 1, and WFC was entered in Step 2. The change in R 2 at Step 1 and Step 2 was tested for signicance. Signicantly negative relationships were

The International Journal of Human Resource Management

Table 2. Hierarchical regression of WFC on business and marriage outcomes. Business success Step1 Age Education Child at home Masculinity Femininity DR2 Step2 WFC DR2 Total R2 Overall F .20* .14* .07 2 .02 .01 .12*** 2 .35*** .09*** .18 9.56***

749

Marriage satisfaction 2 .02 2 .02 2 .20* 2 .08 .22** .06** 2 .33** .08** .12 4.50***

Notes: b reported based on the full model. N 202; *p , .05; **p , .01; ***p , .001.

Table 3. Hierarchical regressions of WIF and FIW on business and marriage outcomes. Business success Step1 Age Education Child at home Masculinity Femininity DR2 Step2 WIF DR2 Step3 FIW DR2 Total R2 Overall F .19** .16* 2 .02 2 .02 2 .04 .12*** 2 .01 .02 2 .40*** .12*** .23 8.06*** Marriage satisfaction 2 .02 2 .04 2 .11 2 .06 .19 .07** 2 .47*** .14*** 2 .06 .00 .18 6.02***

Notes: b reported based on the full model. N 202; *p , .05; **p , .01; ***p , .001.

identied between WFC and business success (DR 2 .09, b 2 .35, p , .001), and marriage satisfaction (DR 2 .08, b 2 .33, p , .01). Hypothesis 2 was thus supported. Hypothesis 3 proposed that FIW explained additional variances in perceived business success and Hypothesis 4 proposed that WIF explained additional variances in marriage satisfaction (Table 3). In Step 1 background variables and gender-role attitude were entered into the regression equations. WIF was entered in Step 2, and FIW in Step 3. The changes in R 2 at each step were tested for signicance. With perceived business success as the dependent variable, FIW was found to be negatively related to perceived business success (b 2 .40, p , .001) and signicant (DR 2 .12), but no such relationship existed for WIF (b .01, p . .05). Meanwhile, when marriage satisfaction was the dependent variable, WIF was negatively and signicantly related with marriage satisfaction (b 2 .47, p , .001; DR 2 .14), but no such relationship existed for FIW (b 2 .06, p . .05). Hypotheses 3 and 4 were thus supported.

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This work also examined multi-collinearity problems among independent variables using the variance ination factor (VIF), and conditional index (CI). In all regression equations, the value of VIF for each independent variable was below 1.5, while those of tolerance were greater than 0.5, and CI values were below 30. These values were consistent with the satisfaction criteria proposed by Myers (1990). This study thus concluded that the multi-collinearity problems existing between independent variables and the regression models might not result in bias. Discussions and conclusions This study on work family conict for copreneurial wives provides an opportunity to improve understanding of family business via an integrated system perspective that incorporates psychological well-being theory and family system theory. In considering the unique situation of business and marriage partners, we assumed that copreneurial women would have more control over their work demand and therefore reduce work-to-family conict. Contrary to our expectation, we found that work and family were asymmetrically permeable with WIF being signicantly more predominant than FIW. This nding is consistent with Eagle et al.s study (1997) that work domains are more predominant than family domains for copreneurial women as well as for dual-career women. The plausible explanation was that copreneurial women have responsibilities rather than control over their work environment. As indicated by Dhaliwal (2000), copreneurial women seem to be caught up between a sense of duty and a feeling of being exploited. Their exploitation is justied in terms of duty and business success. This result has important implications for theories concerning copreneurs balance of work and home life. Many copreneurs belief that small business ownership would enhance quality of life is questionable. As indicated by Smith (2000), female copreneurs see themselves as wives and mothers rst, and business managers second. Female copreneurs seemed to allow work to consume disproportionate amounts of their energies and attention. In other words, copreneurial women may become enslaved to their family business rather than enjoying the autonomy and exibility of self-employment. This result frustrated copreneurs pursuit to have it all or to be mutually fullled in both domains. This study extended prior research on the behavior outcomes of WFC, namely marriage and business outcomes. As expected, negative relationships exist between work family conict and business and marriage outcomes. These ndings are parallel with a study conducted by Frone, Russell and Barnes (1996), in which these authors reported that increased level of work and family demands could decrease the life and family satisfaction. In family businesses, the roles and rules of the family system are often unconsciously integrated into the business cultures. Moreover, in copreneurship where the business responsibilities are shared, disproportionate sharing of household duties may well lead to frustration, resentment and burnout on the part of the female partner. This is liable to have a deleterious effect on the marital relationship, and ultimately on the success of the business partnership itself. Also hypothesized, WIF was negatively related to marital relationship, whereas, FIW was negatively related to perceived business success. This nding is consistent with the theoretical model posed by Frone and colleagues and reinforces the importance of considering the dimensionality of the WFC construct and domain-specic relations (Frone et al. 1997). That is, conict originating from the work domain is likely to have a stronger relation with work-related outcomes than is conict emanating from the family domain, and vice versa. In other words, if the obligations of one role frequently interfere

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with the enactment of a second role, the level of interrole performance associated with the second role may suffer. To conclude, the present study nds strong support for the theoretical separation of WFC into WIF and FIW, and the domain-specic outcomes. The practical implications of this research for female copreneurs revolve around acknowledging the importance of work family management strategies to their business success. If quality of life is the major factor attracting copreneurs to pursue self-employment, work family management strategies should be a part of the planning process. The resources to outsource family obligations or to build an effective management team should also be included in the resource requirements for launching a business. Counseling on work family management strategies and participative management techniques can be delivered to female copreneurs through existing support infrastructures such as small business and entrepreneurial advisory centers. In addition, both partners should pay greater attention to strengthen the boundaries between work and family. As Foley and Powell (1997) suggested, business/marriage partners may benet from continuous discussion of what they bring to both the marriage and business in terms of attitudes, expectations, skills, abilities, preferences, and time allocation between work and family roles. Since women fullled non-substitutable roles in the copreneurial business and were apparently victimized from to have it all syndromes, this study suggests that the unique contributions of the copreneurial wives must be recognized by both public policy makers and academia so that more policy-oriented research would be conducted to improve the understanding of copreneurship.

Limitations of the present study This study has several limitations. First, concerns exist regarding the generalizability of the study results. Although Fu and Shaffer (2001) contended that work family conict may be a cross-national and bidirectional construct, the current study sample comprises Taiwanese copreneurial women, a group famous for being hard-working and maintaining blurred distinctions between family and work boundaries. Schein (1984) proposed that Eastern societies gave greater priority to work than do Western societies. Therefore, future research should examine copreneurial women in different cultural settings, namely, Western societies, or conduct a Sino US comparative study on copreneurial womens WFC, WIF, and FIW. Second, the data were based on self-reported measures collected at a single time. This study used a Harmon one-factor test to search for possible common method bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff 2003). The analytical results identied four factors, suggesting that contamination of the observed results by bias of common method variances was not likely. However, future studies could survey both male and female copreneurs to understand better the nature of work and family conict. Third, this study used a single item to measure business success which may cause difculty in measuring reliability and validity. Fourth, the study did not control the variances of variables such as type of industry, number of employees, business life stage, and so on. These business-related variables may covariate with outcome variables and need to be examined in the future studies.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Chung-Yuan Christian University for nancially supporting this research under Contract No. 107011-13.

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