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AE 1350
v GMm Fg = r 2 r
where G = 6.674 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
v F g
v F g
r1 is the position of the body 1 relative to our origin r1i is the position of the body i relative to body 1
F gi =
j =1 j i
Gmi m j rji
n
2
rji
F g i = Gmi
j =1 j i
mj rji
2
rji
v v && = Fi ri mi
i = 1n
This is a 2nd order, nonlinear vector differential equation that does not have a general closed-form solution, normally solved via numerical integration
As we defined earlier:
v where r12 is the position of body 2 relative to body 1 v r12 and && is the acceleration of body 2 relative to body 1
n m n m m1 m2 v j j && = G r12 r + 2 rj2 2 r21 2 rj1 2 12 r21 j = 3 r j2 j = 3 r j1 r12 n rj2 rj1 G (m1 + m2 ) v && = r12 r12 G m j 2 2 2 r r12 rj1 j =3 j2
r12
v && r12
(3)
(4)
(1) two body term which is a function of m1, m2, r12 (2) gravitational acceleration caused by masses 3n, Perturbing Term (3) gravitational acceleration of body 2 due to masses 3n (4) gravitational acceleration of body 1 due to masses 3n
In this table, relative acceleration is defined as: which is equivalent to the term used:
Gm j rj
2
rj
Gm j rj2 r j2
2
G (M + m )r v && = r 2 r
This 2nd order vector differential equation has a closed form solution!
G (m + M ) GM =
km 3 is in units of 2 s
v && = r r 2 r
PE =
ref
GMm PE = r ref
PE r PE ref GMm GMm + = r rref
rref = therefore,
(PE will always be negative!)
GMm m = PE = r r
v = 2 r
v v v h = r v
Since h is the cross-product of r and v, it must always be perpendicular to the plane containing r and v
v r
Two-Body Motion
Motion conserves angular momentum and energy
An object moving under the influence of a single, spherical, and constant-mass gravitational field
Therefore:
Has constant specific angular momentum vector (h), both magnitude and direction:
Motion in a constant plane Our 3D problem just became a 2D problem!
Does not lose or gain energy, but simply exchanges PE for KE and vice versa (constant )
Types of solutions characterized by
B 1 + cos
Conic Sections
The prime focus, F, marks the location of the gravitational body 2p is the width of each curve at the focus (latus rectum) 2a is the length of the chord passing through the foci (major axis) 2c is the distance between the two foci
p = a 1 e2
e = c/a
17
Apses
The extreme points along a conics major axis are referred to as apses
periapsis, = 0o (closest point), rp apoapsis, = 180o (farthest point), ra
p rp = = a (1 e ) 1+ e p ra = = a (1 + e ) 1 e
h = rp v p = ra va
= 2 rp vp
2
h 2 = p = a 1 e 2
Energy (continued)
So:
a(1 + e )(1 e ) 2a(1 e ) = 2 2a 2 (1 e )
(1 + e ) 2 = 2a (1 e ) e = 2a (1 e ) (e 1) = 2a (1 e ) = 2a
Eccentricity
Now, since h determines p, and determines a, the two together determine e
p = a 1 e2
)
)
h2 = 1 e2 2 2h 2 = e2 1 2 2h 2 = e2 1 2
2h e = 1 + 2
2
1/2
= 1 when = 0
Elliptical Orbits
Planets in our solar system, most spacecraft An ellipse can be defined geometrically as the locus of points transcribed by a piece of string anchored at the two foci and traced out for all
For = 0o or 180o, r + r= 2a By definition rp + ra = 2a
Orbital Period
Orbital Period is defined as the time required for the spacecraft to travel once around its orbit (P)
& Tangential velocity component, V cos = r Use the fact that, h = rv cos
& V cos = r
& h = r 2 2 d h=r dt 2 r dt = d h
So:
h d = 2 dt r
Orbital Period
From geometry, we see that:
2 d = 2 dA r So, 2 dt = dA h
dA =
1 2 r d 2
This is a mathematical statement of Keplers 2nd law (note: h = constant) (Planet orbits sweep out equal area per unit time as they orbit) Over the course of one full orbit,
dt =
2 2 dA = ab h h 2ab P= h
Orbital Period
Using the fact that: h = p So,
P= 2a ap p
2a 3/2 P=
This is a mathematical statement of Keplers 3rd law, It also shows that the period of an elliptical orbit depends only on the length of the semi-major axis (a, the average of rp and ra)
Orbits!
Low Earth Orbits Geosynchronous Orbits Transfer Orbits Gravitational Slingshot Lagrangian Points
Circular Orbits
A circular orbit is a special case of an elliptical orbit where e = 0 and r = constant = p = a,
2r 3/2 P=
since r = a
We know energy is only a function of a: v2 = = 2 r 2a For a circular orbit where r = a, this becomes: v 2 2 = + = 2 2r 2r 2r 1/2 and Note that V decreases as r increases and V increases v= as r decreases r
Example
Calculate the velocity of an artificial satellite orbiting the earth in a circular orbit at an altitude of 150 miles above the Earth's surface
r = (3,960 + 150 mile) x 5,280 ft/mile = 21,700,800 ft v2 = GM / r v2 = 1.408 x 1016 / 21,700,800 ft2/s2 v = 25,470 ft/s
Polar LEO
Polar orbits have an inclination near 90 degrees Have the advantage that they pass over the entire planet at regular intervals
Which has many uses
Takes more energy to get there than for low inclination orbits
Hyperbolic Orbits
A hyperbolic path is required when we define an orbit that (theoretically) reaches infinity with some residual velocity
(wikipedia)
Lagrangian Points
L4 Usually Stable (depending on masses) Earth L2 L3
Moon L1
L5
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