Network Lab Manual (A & B)

Computer Networks Lab Manual
COMPUTER NETWORKS LAB MANUAL

For
VII SEMESTER(ISE)
by: Sreenath M, Sr. Lecturer, Dept. of ISE,
Note: Student is required to solve one problem from PART-A and one problem from PART-B. The questions are allotted based on lots. Both questions carry equal marks.
PART - A
SIMULATION EXERCISES
The following experiments shall be conducted using either NS / NCTUns or any other suitable simulator.
Department Of Information Science and Engineering
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1. Simulate a three nodes point to point network with duplex links between them. Set the queue size and vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped. 2. Simulate a four node point-to-point network with the links connected as follows:n0 n2, n1 n2 and n2 n3. Apply TCP agent between n0-n3 and UDP between n1-n3. Apply relevant applications over TCP and UDP agents changing the parameter and determine the number of packets sent by TCP / UDP. 3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP and TELNET over a network and analyze the throughput. 4. Simulate the transmission of ping messages over a network topology consisting of 6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion. 5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using n nodes (6-10), change error rate and data rate and compare throughput. 6. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and determine collision across different nodes. 7. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using n nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot congestion window for different source / destination. 8. Simulate simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wire-less LAN by simulation and determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets.
PART - B
IMPLEMENT THE FOLLOWING BY C/C++
1. Write a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16- bits).
2. Write a program for frame sorting technique used in buffers.
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3. Write a program for distance vector algorithm to find suitable path for transmission. 4. Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client server program to make the client send the file name and to make the server send back the contents of the requested file if present. 5. Implement the above program using as message queues or FIFOs as IPC channels. 6. Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data. 7. Write a program for Hamming code generation for error detection and correction. 8. Write a program for congestion control using leaky bucket algorithm.
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PART A Programs
The following experiments shall be conducted using NS2 or NCTUns-6.0 or other suitable simulator
Steps to execute Part-A:

1.After grub loading select NCTUns kernel 2.others 3.username:root Password:root123 STEP1-open terminal1 [root@lab3~]#cd /usr/local/nctuns/bin [root@lab3~bin]# ./dispatcher STEP2-open terminal2 [root@lab3~]#cd /usr/local/nctuns/bin [root@lab3~bin]# ./coordinator STEP3-open terminal3 [root@lab3~]#cd /usr/local/nctuns/bin [root@lab3~bin]# ./nctunsclient
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1. Simulate a three-node point-to-point network with a duplex link between them. Set the queue size and vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped. Procedure: 1. Draw the n/w topology as specified in the draw topology mode of the simulator Draw toplogy mode Select the hub icon and drag it on the working window Select the host icon on the toolbar and drag it on the working window Repeat for another host Select the link icon from the toolbar & make a connection b/w host1 and hub, host2 and hub. Here the hub acts as node 3 in the point to point n/w topology 2. Go to edit mode and save the topology as a .tpl file 3. Double click on host1,click on the node editor & select MAC layer and then select half duplex for hubs & in log statistics , select no of drop packets, no of collisions, & throuput of outgoing packets & press ok. Select FIFO , set the queue size to 50 & press ok . click on command box & type the following command Shown after diagram 4. Double click on the link b/w host1 and hub to set the b/w to some initial value ,say 10mbps 5. Save the changes made to the topology .now click on the R button to run the simulation 6. Now go to menu -> simulation -> run . execution 7. Play 8. Go to g-settings , plot the graph -> fileopen ->.results Topology:-
Sender:stg u 1024 100 1.0.1.2 Receiver:rtg u w log1 Parameters:Drop Packets and Collision Packets 2. Simulate a four-node point-to-point network and connect the link as follows: Apply a TCP agent between n0 to n3 and apply a UDP agent between n1 and n3. Apply
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relevant applications over TCP and UDP agents changing the parameters and determine the number of packets sent by two agents. Procedure: 1. Create the toplogy of three nodes connect these nodes to a hub 2. Goto edit mode & save the topology 3. Setup the tcp connection b/w n0-n3 and udp connection b/w n1-n3 as fallows using the commands TCP & UDP SenderStcp p 7000 l 1024 1.0.1.3 Stg u 7000 l 100 1.0.1.3 Receiverrtcp p 7000 l 1024 rtg u w log1 4. Set the i/p throuput for the receiver & the o/p throuput for the sender in the log file statistics 5. Back to edit mode 6. Run the simulation 7. Play 8. For results of graph, -> g-settings ->.plot graph ->select parameters 9. make a comparisons Topology:-
Sender:Stcp p 7000 l 1024 1.0.1.3
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Stg u 7000 l 100 1.0.1.3 Receiver:rtcp p 7000 l 1024 rtg u w log1 Parameters:Throughput of incoming and outgoing Packets
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3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP, TELNET over a network and analyze the throughput. Procedure: Steps to FTP connection 1. Create the topology of three nodes Connect these nodes to a hub 2. Go to edit mode and save the toplogy 3. Setup FTP connection b/w 1 and 3 using the following commands Stcp p 21 l 1024 1.0.1.3 4. Set the i/p and o/p throughput logfile as described in the previous experiments 5. To view results, go to filename results folder To setup TELNET connection 1. Create the topology of three nodes; connect these nodes to the hub 2. Go to edit mode and save the topology 3. Setup TELNET connection b/w node2 and node3 Using the following command Stcp p 23 l 1024 1.0.1.3 Rtcp p 23 l 1024 4. Set the input and output throughput log file as described in the previous experiments 5. To view the results, go filename results folder Topology:-
Sender:For FTP stcp p 21 l 1024 1.0.1.3 For Telnet stcp p 23 l 1024 1.0.1.3
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Receiver:For FTP rtcp p 21 l 1024 For Telnet rtcp p 23 l 1024 Parameters:Throughput of incoming and outgoing Packets
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4. Simulate the transmission of ping messages over a network topology consisting of 6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion. Procedure: 1.click on the hub icon on the toolbar and drag it on the working window 2. select the 6 nodes and a suitable radius b/w the host and the hub 3. a single host is made to act as a receiver and other as sender 4.run the simulation 5.in the run mode from sending node the receiving node is pinged using ping 1.0.1.6 Note:the no of dropped packets are obtained only when the traffic is more is the n/w Command console:go to tools Simulation time and change Simulation time to 100 During run mode, doulble click host2 and then click command console and execute Ping 1.0.1.6
Topology:-
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Sender:stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Receiver:rtcp p 2000 l 1024 Command Console:Goto tools-> simulation time and change Simulation time to 100. During run mode, double click host 2 and then click command console. And execute the following command. ping 1.0.1.4 Parameters:Drop Packets and Collision Packets.
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5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes (6-10), change error rate and data rate and compare throughput. Procedure: 1. Connect one set of host with a hub and another set of host also through a hub and connect these two hubs with a switch , this forms Ethernet LAN 2. To setup a tcp connection b/w a host or one hub & host or another hub using following commands Stcp p portno l buffer size IP address Stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 rtcp p 2000 l 1024 3. Setup the error route , data route in the physical layer, i/p and o/p throughput in the MAC layer 4. Change error route and data route and compare throughput 5. View the results in file name results Note:double click on reciver link and change BER to 0.000001, run again
Topology:-
Sender:stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Receiver:rtcp p 2000 l 1024 Double click on receiver link and change BER to 0.000001, Run Again. Parameters:Throughput of outgoing Packets
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6. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and determine collisions across different nodes. Procedure: 1. Connect one set of host with a hub and another set of host also through a hub and connect these two hubs through a switch, these forms Ethernet LAN 2. Setup multiple traffic connection b/w the hosts on one hub & hosts on another hub using the following command Stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Rtcp p 2000 l 1024 3. Setup the collision log at the destination host in the MAC layer 4. Give the results in filename .results Topology:-
Sender:stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Receiver:rtcp p 2000 l 1024 Parameters:Collision Packets and Drop Packets (Optional)
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7. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plot congestion window for different source/destination. Procedure: 1. Connect one set of host with a hub and another set of hosts also through a hub and connect these two hubs through a switch this forms an Ethernet LAN 2. Setup multiple traffic connection b/w the hosts on one hub and host on another hub using the following Stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Rtcp p 2000 l 1024 3. Setup the collision log at the destination host in the MAC layer 4. Plot the congestion window , go to menu->tools->plotgraph->file->open filename results-> filename .coll.log 5. Give the results in filename .results
Topology:-
Sender:stcp p 2000 l 1024 1.0.1.4 Receiver:rtcp p 2000 l 1024 Parameters:Receiver side Collision Packets and Drop Packets
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8. Simulate simple BSS and with transmitting nodes in wireless LAN by simulation and determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets. Procedure: 1. Draw the topology consisting of a : route b:host c:WLAN d:WLAN access point (two) 2. Go to tools menu, select the option wireless LAN -> mobile nodes 3. Generate infrastructure mobile nodes IP 4. A dialog box appear, entries to be done are Subnet ID 8 gateway IP Subnetid=2 & gateway Ip= 1.0.1.0 5. Here mobile nodes are the senders & the host is the receiver 6. For each mobile node, add a command ttcp t -u s p 7000 ttcp t u s p 7001 for another node 7. For the receiver, add the following command Ttcp r u s p 7000 8. Run the simulation 9. To see the results of the graph , go to g-settings ->plot graph ->file open>results, select the parameters required
Topology:-
Click on access point. Goto wireless interface and tick on show transmission range and then click OK. Double click on Router -> Node Editor and then Left stack -> throughput of Incoming packets Right stack -> throughput of Outgoing packets Select mobile hosts and access points then click on. Tools -> WLAN mobile nodes-> WLAN Generate infrastructure.
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Subnet ID: Port number of router (2) Gateway ID: IP address of router Mobile Host 1 ttcp t u s p 3000 1.0.1.1 Mobile Host 1 ttcp t u s p 3001 1.0.1.1 Host(Receiver) ttcp r u s p 3000 ttcp r u s p 3001 Run and then play to plot the graph.
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PART-B
Error detecting code using CRC-CCITT
Overview: The accurate implementations (long-hand and programmed) of the 16-bit CRC-CCITT specification, is as follows: Width = 16 bits Truncated polynomial = 0x1021 Initial value = 0xFFFF Input data is NOT reflected Output CRC is NOT reflected No XOR is performed on the output CRC Theoretical Concepts: Important features of a standard CRC are that it: Can be used to validate data Is reproducible by others The first feature above is easy to realize in a closed system if corruption of data is infrequent (but substantial when it occurs). The term "closed system" refers to a situation where the CRC need not be communicated to others. A correct implementation of a 16-bit CRC will detect a change in a single bit in a message of over 8000 bytes. An erroneous CRC implementation may not be able to detect such subtle errors. If errors are usually both rare and large (affecting several bits), then a faulty 16-bit CRC implementation may still be adequate in a closed system. The second feature above -- that the CRC is reproducible by others -- is crucial in an open system; that is, when the CRC must be communicated to others. If the integrity of data passed between two applications is to be verified using a CRC defined by a particular standard, then the implementation of that standard must produce the same result in both applications -- otherwise, valid data will be reported as corrupt. Reproducibility may be satisfied by even a botched implementation of a standard CRC in most cases -- if everyone uses the same erroneous implementation of the standard. But this approach:
Modifies the standard in ways that are both unofficial and undocumented.
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Creates confusion when communicating with others who have not adopted the botched implementation as the implied standard.
The CRC value for the 9-byte reference string, "123456789" is 0xE5CC. The need to focus on the 16-bit CRC-CCITT (polynomial 0x1021) and not CRC16 (polynomial 0x8005),are as follows :
Is a straightforward 16-bit CRC implementation in that it doesn't involve: reflection of data reflection of the final CRC value Starts with a non-zero initial value -- leading zero bits can't affect the CRC16 used by LHA, ARC, etc., because its initial value is zero. It requires no additional XOR operation after everything else is done. The CRC32 implementation used by Ethernet, Pkzip, etc., requires this operation; less common 16-bit CRCs may require it as well. Can be calculated faster than a 32-bit CRC. Requires less space than a 32-bit CRC for storage, display or printing. Is usually long enough if the data being safeguarded is fewer than several thousand bytes in length, e.g., individual records in a database.
The need to use a 16-bit CRC instead of a 32-bit CRC is as follows :

Example: Calculationofthe16bitCRCCCITTforaonebyte messageconsistingoftheletter"A": Quotient=111100001110111101011001 poly= 10001000000100001) 1111111111111111010000010000000000000000 10001000000100001 redbitsareinitialvalue 11101111110111111 boldbitsaremessage 10001000000100001 bluebitsareaugmentation
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11001111100111100 10001000000100001 10001111000111010 10001000000100001 00001110000110110 00000000000000000 00011100001101100 00000000000000000 00111000011011000 00000000000000000 01110000110110001 00000000000000000 11100001101100010 10001000000100001 11010011010000110 10001000000100001 10110110101001110
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Program 1: Write a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16-bits). #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> char t[128],cs[128],g[ ]="10001000000100001"; #define N strlen(g) int a,e,c; void xor() { for(c=1;c<N;c++) cs[c]=((cs[c]==g[c])?'0':'1'); } void crc() { for(e=0;e<N;e++) cs[e]=t[e]; do { if(cs[0]=='1') xor(); for(c=0;c<N-1;c++) cs[c]=cs[c+1]; cs[c]=t[e++]; }while(e<=a+N-1); } main() { printf("\nEnter poly:"); scanf("%s",t); printf("\nGenerating polynomial is:%s",g); a=strlen(t);
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for(e=a;e<a+N-1;e++) t[e]='0'; printf("\nModified t[u] is:%s",t); crc(); printf("\nChecksum is:%s",cs); for(e=a;e<a+N-1;e++) t[e]=cs[e-a]; printf("Final codeword is:%s",t); printf("\nTest Error detection 0(yes) 1(no)?: "); scanf("%d",&e); if(e==0) { printf("Enter position where error is to be inserted:"); scanf("%d",&e); t[e]=(t[e]=='0')?'1':'0'; printf("Errorneous Data :%s\n",t); } crc(); for (e=0;(e<N-1) && (cs[e]!='1');e++); if (e<N-1) printf("error detected"); else printf ("no error detedcted"); } Output: cc 1.c ./a.out Enter the polynomial: 001001001 Generating polynomial is:10001000000100001 Modified t[u] is: 0010010010000000000000000 Checksum is : 1101100111101101 Final code word is: 0010010011101100111101101 Test error detection 0(yes) 1(no)?: 0 Enter position where error is to be inserted:2 Eronious data:0000010011101100111101101 Error detected. Test error detection 0(yes) 1(no)?:1
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FRAME SORTING TECHNIQUE USED IN BUFFERS

Overview & Theoretical Concepts: We need the frame sorter when the frame source is using TCP/IP so we can run packet re-assemblers on other computers in an effort to balance the workload. If the frames are coming in over ISIS IP multicasts, we don't need a sorter: Each re-assembler can receive all frames and discard those they don't need. This way we get each frame on the network one time only, and the work in each re-assembler to input and reject frames on the wrong virtual channel is very little. If ISIS is not using true IP multicasting, then, once again, the sorter is needed to reduce the network traffic. There are side benefits to such a design. In cases like I&T where the frame source is using TCP/IP, we need to sort the transfer frames by virtual channel so we can run some packet re-assemblers on other workstations to balance the compute load. But even so, we may re-assemble housekeeping packets on the workstation doing the frame sorting. Why do it in a separate process? This is especially true on Solaris where we have control over thread binding, and therefore, thread concurrency. In a multi-threaded environment, the frame sorter and packet re-assembler both can be constructed from a collection of objects: input tasks, output tasks, packet assembly tasks, pool objects, sorter objects, and queue objects. The packet re-assembler might looks like this: input --> queue --> pkt assy --> sorter --> queue --> output Transfer frames enter an input. Input enqueues and possibly archives them. The packet assembly task reads frames out of the queue and constructs packets. It hands completed packets to a sorter which enqueues them for output tasks and possibly archives them. Each output task reads packets from its queue and sends packets out. Program 2: Write a program for frame sorting technique used in the buffers. #include<stdio.h> struct frame{ int fslno;
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char finfo[20]; }; struct frame arr[10]; int n; void sort() { int i,j,ex; struct frame temp; for(i=0;i<n-1;i++) { ex=0; for(j=0;j<n-i-1;j++) if(arr[j].fslno>arr[j+1].fslno) { temp = arr[j]; arr[j]=arr[j+1]; arr[j+1]=temp; ex++; } if(ex==0) break; } } int main() { int i; system("clear "); printf("enter the no of frames:\n"); scanf("%d",&n); printf("enter the frame sequence and frame content\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) scanf("%d%s",&arr[i].fslno,&arr[i].finfo); sort(); printf("The frame in sequences\n"); for(i=0;i<n;i++){ printf("%d\t%s\n",arr[i].fslno,arr[i].finfo);
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printf("-----------------------------------------------------------\n"); } return 0; } Output : Enter the number of frames: 3 Enter the frame sequence and frame content: 5 ink 3 pot 8 pen The frame in sequence 3 pot --------------------------------5 ink --------------------------------8 pen ---------------------------------
x z Background: One of the mosty popular & dynamic routing algorithms, the = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 distance vector routing algorithms operate by using the concept of each router having to maintain cost to ie., a vector ), that lets the router know the a table( cost to cost to best or x y z distance to eachzdestination and the next hop to get to there. shortest x y x y z Also know as Bellman Ford(1957) and Ford Fulkerson (1962). It was the x 0 2 7 x 0 2 original ARPANET algorithm. 3 x 0 2 3 y y 2 0 1 Algorithm Overview:Each router maintains a table containing entries for y 2 0 1 z by and indexed each other router in the subnet. Table contains two parts : z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 from 1.A preferred outing from line. from cost to cost to cost 2.Estimate of time or distance to that destination. to y x y z x y z The metric used here is the transmission delay toyeach destination. This x z 2 1 metric maybe number of hops, 7 etc. x x 0 2 queue length, 0 2 3 x x z The y 2 0is assumed to know the distance metric to each of its7 router 1 y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 neighbours.Across the z network the delay is calculated by sending echo z 7 1 z 3 1 0 packets to each of neighbours. 0 from from from Example: to cost to cost to cost
DISTANCE VECTOR ALGORITHM D (y) = min{c(x,y) + D (y), c(x,z) + D (y)}
x y z x y z 71 0 from
x y z
x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 Department Of Information Science and Engineering y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0 from from
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Program 3: Write a program for distance vector algorithm to find suitable path for transmission. #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> int p,a[10][10]; int i,j; void path(int n) { printf("If no path exist,enter a value > 999 \n"); printf("enter the source node:"); scanf("%d",&p); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { for(j=1;j<=n;j++) { if(i==j) a[i][i]=0; else { printf("Enter the value of %d : %d ::: path \n",i,j); scanf("%d",&a[i][j]); } } } } int minv(int a[10][10],int s)
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{ int sma=9999,pos; for(i=1;i<=s;i++) if(sma>a[1][i]) { sma==a[1][i]; pos=i; } for(j=i;j<=s;j++) a[1][j]=a[1][j+1]; return pos; } void fsp(int n) { int s=n; while(s>1) { int sma=minv(a,s); s=s-1; for(i=p;i<=n;i++) if(i!=sma) { if(a[p][i]>a[p][sma]+a[sma][i]) a[p][i]=a[p][sma]+a[sma][i]; } } } void disp(int n) { for(i=1;i<=n;i++) printf("the path from %d to %d : %d \n",p,i,a[p][i]); } main() { int n; printf("enter the number of nodes:");
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scanf("%d",&n); path(n); fsp(n); disp(n); }
Output: Enter the number of node:3 If no path exists,enter a value >999 Enter the source node: 1 Enter the value of 1:2:::path 200 Enter the value of 1:3:::path 255 Enter the value of 2:1:::path 256 Enter the value of 2:3:::path 643 Enter the value of 3:1:::path 235 Enter the value of 3:2:::path 2345 The path from 1 to 1:0 The path from 1 to 2:200 The path from 1 to 3:255
CLIENT SERVER PROGRAM USING SOCKET PROGRAMMING OVERVIEW:Unix sockets is just like two way FIFO's. All data communication will take place through the socket's interface, instead of through the file interface. Although unix socket's are a special file in the file system(just like FIFO's), there's usage of socket(), bind(), recv(),etc and not open(), read(). When programming with socket's, usually there's creation of server and client programs. The server will sit listening for incoming connections from
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clients and handling. This is similar to the situation that exists with internet sockets but with fine differences. For instance, when describing which unix socket that has to be used(i.e the path to the special file that is the socket). The structure struct sockaddr_un has the following fields: struct sockaddr_un{ unsigned short sa_family; // Address family,AF_XXXX char sa_data; // 14 bytes of protocol address }; This is the structure you will be passing to the bind() function, which associates a socket descriptor(a file descriptor) with a certain file(the name for which is in the sun_path field). The structure struct sockaddr_in is used when we need IP address and Port number to be binded to the Sockets. It has following fields: struct sockaddr_in { short int sin_family; // Address family unsigned short int sin_port; // Port number struct in_addr sin_addr; // Internet address unsigned char sin_zero[8] // Same size as struct sockaddr }; // Internet adress struct in_addr { unsigned long s_addr; // 32 bits or 4 bytes long }; BACKGROUND REQUIRED: 1. UNIX File I/O system calls 2. UNIX IPC system calls 3. UNIX socket programming THEORETICAL CONCEPTS: Most interprocess communication uses the client server model. These terms refer to the two processes which will be communication with each other. One of the two processes , the client , connects to the other process, the server, typiceally to make a request for information. A good analogy is a person who makes a phone call to another person. Notice that the client needs to know of the existence of and the address of the server, but the server does not need to know the adresss of(or even the existence of) the client prior to the connection being established. Notice also
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that once a connection is established, both sides can send and receive information. The system calls for establishing a connection are somewhat different for the client and the server, but both involve the basic construct of a socket. A socket is one end of an interprocess communication channel. The two processes each establish their own socket. The steps involved in establishing a socket on the client side are as follows1. Create a socket with the socket() system call . 2. Connect the socket to the address of the server using the connect() system call. 3. Send and receive data.There are a number of ways to do this, but the simplest is to use the read() and write() systen calls. The stepd involved in establishing a socket on the server side are as follows1. Create a socket with the socket() system call. 2. Bind the socket to an address using the bind() system call. For a server socket on the internet,an address consists of a port number on the host machine. 3. Listen for connections with the listen() system call. 4. Acept a connection with the accept() system call. This call typically blocks until a client connects with the server. 5. Send and receive the data. Socket Types: When a socket is created, the program has to specify the address domain and the socket type. Two processes can communicate with each other only if their sockets are of the same type and in the same domain, in which two processes running on any two hosts on the Internet communicate. Each of these has it's own adress format. The address of a socket in the Unix domain is a character string which is basically an entry in the file system. The address of a socket in the Internet domain consists of the Internet address of the host machine (every computer on the Internet has a unique 32 bit address, often reffered to as it's IP address). In addition , each socket needs a port number on that host. Port numbers are 16 bit unsigned integers. The lower numbers are reserved in Unix for standard services. For eg, the port number for the FTP server is 21.There are two widely used socket types, stream sockets , and datgram sockets. Stream sockets treat communications as a continuous stream of characters, while datagram
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sockets have to read entire messages at once. Each uses it's own communications protocol. Stream sockets use TCP , which is a reliable , stream oriented protocol, and datagram sockets use UDP, which is unreliable and message oriented. The primary socket calls are as follows:1. socket() - Create a new socket and return it's descriptor. 2. bind() - Associate a socket with a port and address . 3. Listen() -Establish a queue for connection requests. 4. Accept()- Accepts a connection request. 5. Connect()- Initiate a connection to a remote host. 6. Recv() - Receive data from a socket descriptor. 7. Send() - Send data to a socket descriptor. 8. Close() - one-way close of a socket descriptor, The other system calls used are as follows:1. gethostbyname- given a hostname , returns a structure which specifies it's DNS name(s) and IP address(es). 2. getservbyname given service name and protocol , returns a structure which specifies its name(s) and its port address. The socket utility functions are as follows:1. htons/ntohl- convert short/long from host byte order to network byte order. 2. inet_ntoa/inet_addr- converts 32 bit IP address (network byte order to/from a dotted decimal string) The header files used in order are:1.<sys/types.h> -prerequisite typedefs. 2. <errno.h> -names for erno values (error numbers) 3. <sys/socket.> - struct sock addr ;system prototypes and constants . 4. <netdb.h.h> - network info lookup prototypes and structures. 5. <netinet/in.h> - struct sockaddr_in; byte ordering macros. 6. <arpa/inet.h> - utility function prototypes.
Program 4 Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client-server program to make client sending the file name and the server to send back the contents of the requested file if present.
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Client program: #include<stdio.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<netinet/in.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> int main(int argc,char *argv[]) { int sockfd,portno,n; char buffer[256],c[20000]; struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; if(argc<2){ fprintf(stderr,"error,no port provided\n"); exit(1); } portno=atoi(argv[1]); sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0); if (sockfd<0) error ("error opening socket\n"); bzero((char*) &serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr("127.0.0.1"); serv_addr.sin_port=htons(portno); if(connect(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr))<0) error("error connecting"); printf("client:\nenter path with file name\n"); scanf("%s",&buffer); n=write(sockfd,buffer,strlen(buffer)); if(n<0) error("error writing to socket\n"); bzero(c,20000); n=read(sockfd,c,19999); if(n<0) error("error reading from socket\n"); printf("client:displaying contents of %s\n",buffer); fputs(c,stdout); return 0;
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} Server program: #include<stdio.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<netinet/in.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> int main(int argc,char *argv[]) { int sockfd,newsockfd,portno,clilen,n; char buffer[256],c[2000],cc[20000]; struct sockaddr_in serv_addr,cli_addr; FILE *fd; if(argc<2){ fprintf(stderr,"Error,no Port provided\n");exit(1); } sockfd = socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0); if(sockfd<0) error("error opening socket\n"); bzero((char*) &serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr)); portno=atoi(argv[1]); serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port=htons(portno); if(bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr))<0) error("error on binding\n"); listen(sockfd,5); clilen = sizeof(cli_addr); printf("Server:waiting for client\n"); newsockfd=accept(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&cli_addr,&clilen); bzero(buffer,256); read(newsockfd,buffer,255); printf("server: %s",buffer); if((fd=fopen(buffer,"r"))!=NULL){ printf("server :%s found \n transfering the contents\n",buffer);fgets(cc,20000,fd); while(fgets(c,2000,fd)!=NULL)
strcat(cc,c); write(newsockfd,cc,strlen(cc)); }else{ printf("server:file not found\n"); n=write(newsockfd,"file not found\n",15); } return 0; } Output: cc server.c ./a.out 8888 Server waiting for client: (in another terminal) cc client.c ./a.out 8888 Enter the path: (in that folder jst create a new document and type some text inside the document) Take the path of that folder and type in the client terminal. Enter the path : /nwlab/ns/ns 2.33/a Client : displaying contents of /nwlab/ns/ns 2.33/a
EXECUTION INSTRUCTIONS: There are two programs(Server-side & Client-side) to be typed on an editor (eg vi or kdevelop), exit the editor after saving the progarm, complile the programs on different terminals using the command cc <programname>.c -o <output filename> and then the command ./<output filename> is
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entered if no errors are encountered(else correct the errors and then perform the above). 1. Compile and execute the Server side program specifying an unsed port no. after the ouput filename, then in the other terminal compile and execute the Client side program with IP address of Server system and common port no.
2. Enter the pathname of any file on the Server system as a request to the
Server and wait for reply. 3. Now switch to Server terminal and check if the file requested is present or not and the status of Server. If the file is found then switch to the Client terminal and watch the contents of file displayed on the terminal. Else it displays that file is not found with pathname.
MESSAGE QUEUES / FIFOs AS IPC CHANNELS Client Server communication using FIFO as IPC OVERVIEW: FIFO's is used to send data between a Client and Server. If we have a server that is contacted by numerous clients, each client can write its request to a well-known(i.e, the pathname is known by all clients) FIFO that the server creates. The figure below shows this arrangement. Since there are multiple writers for the FIFO, the requests sent by the clients to the server need to be
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less than PIPE_BUF bytes in size. This prevents any interleaving of the client writes. The problem in using FIFO's for this type of client-server communication is how to send replies back from the server to each client. A single FIFO can't be used, as the clients would never know when to read their response, versus responses for other clients. One solution is for each client to send its process ID with the request. The server then creates a unique FIFO for each client, using a pathname based on the client's process ID.
Server
Client-specific FIFO
Well-known FIFO
Client-specific FIFO
BACKGROUND REQUIRED: 1. UNIX File I/O system calls 2. UNIX IPC system calls Client
Client
ALGORITHM: There are two programs- Server side & Client side. Server side: 1. Create a well-known FIFO using mknod command. Ex: mknod(<fifo name>, S_IFIFO | 0666 , 0) 2. Open the above FIFO in readonly mode to accept requests from the clients. 3. When the client opens the other end of FIFO in writeonly mode then read the contents and store the request(pathname of file) in a buffer. 4. Now create another FIFO(client-specific) in writeonly mode to send the reply(contents of the file requested) 5. Open the file requested by client and write the contents into the client-speicfic FIFO and terminate the connection. Client side: 1. Open the well-known Server FIFO in write mode.
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2. Write the pathname of file into this FIFO and send as a request. 3. Now open the Client-specific FIFO in read mode and wait for reply from server. 4. When the contents of file are available on this FIFO display it on the terminal.
Program 5 Implement the above program using as message queues of FIFOs as IPC channel. server program: #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<errno.h> #include<string.h> #include<fcntl.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<unistd.h> #define FIFO1_NAME "fifo1" #define FIFO2_NAME "fifo2" int main() { char p[100],f[100],c[3000]; int num,num2,f1,fd,fd2,in; mknod(FIFO1_NAME,S_IFIFO | 0666,0); mknod(FIFO2_NAME,S_IFIFO | 0666,0); printf("SERVER ONLINE\n");
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fd = open(FIFO1_NAME,O_RDONLY); printf("Client online \n waiting for request \n"); while(1){ if((num = read(fd, p, 100))==-1) perror("Read Error\n"); else{ p[num] ='\0'; if((f1=open(p,O_RDONLY))<0){ printf("Server %s not found\n",p);return(0);exit(1); } else { printf("Server %s found \n transferring the contents\n",p);stdin = fdopen(f1,"r"); if(fgets(c,3000,stdin)!=NULL){ fd2 = open(FIFO2_NAME,O_WRONLY); if(num2 = write(fd2,c,strlen(c))== -1) perror("Transfer error\n"); else printf("Server:Transfer Completed size=%d\n",strlen(c) ); } else perror("read Error\n"); exit(1); } } } } Client program: #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<errno.h> #include<string.h> #include<fcntl.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<unistd.h>
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#define FIFO1_NAME "fifo1" #define FIFO2_NAME "fifo2" int main() { char p[1000],f[1000],c[3000]; int num,num2,f1,fd,fd2; mknod(FIFO1_NAME,S_IFIFO | 0666,0); mknod(FIFO2_NAME,S_IFIFO | 0666,0); printf("Waiting for server\n"); fd=open(FIFO1_NAME,O_WRONLY); printf("server online\n Client:Enter the Path\n"); while(gets(p)!=feof(stdin)){ if((num= write(fd,p,strlen(p)))==-1) perror("write Error\n"); else { printf("waiting for reply\n"); fd2=open(FIFO2_NAME,O_RDONLY); if((num2=read(fd2,c,300))==-1) perror("Transfer error\n"); else{ printf("File Recevied \n displaying the contents \n"); if(fputs(c,stdout)==EOF) perror("Print error\n"); exit(1); } } } } Output: clientterminal
Server terminal
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cc client.c ./a.out Waiting for server Server online Client: enter the path:/ns/nwlab/ns2.33/file Waiting for reply File received Displaying the contents: Bangalore college of engineering
cc server.c ./a.out Server online Client online, waiting for the request Waiting for request Server /ns/nwlab/ns2.33/file found Transferring the contents Server:transfer completed size=33
EXECUTION INSTRUCTIONS:
There are two programs(Server-side & Client-side) to be typed on an editor, exit the editor after saving the program, compile the programs on different terminals using the command cc <program_name>.c and then the command ./a.out is entered if no errors are encountered(else correct the errors and then perform the above). 1. Compile and execute the Server side program first then in the other terminal compile and execute the client side program. 2. Enter the pathname of any file on the system as a request to the Server and wait for reply. 3. Now switch to Server terminal and check if the file requested is present or not and the status of Server. If the file is found then switch to the Client terminal and watch the contents of file displayed on the terminal. Else it displays that file is not found with pathname.
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RSA ALGORITHM Overview: The RSA Public key algorithm was invented in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adelman (RSA). The algorithm supports encryption and digital signatures. It is the most widely used public key algorithm. RSA gets its security from the integer factorization problem. The algorithm is relatively easy to understand and implement. It has been patent free since 2000.RSA is used in security protocols such as IPSEC/IKE -IP data security, TLS/SSL -transport data security (web), PGP -email security, SSH -terminal connection security, SILC -conferencing service security. Theoretical Concepts: RSA gets its security from the factorization problem. The difficulty of factoring large numbers is the basis of security of RSA. The Integer factorization problem (finding a number's prime factors): For a positive integer n, find its prime factors: n = p1 p2 ... pi where pi is positive distinct prime number Example: 257603 = 41 * 61 * 103 Factorization algorithms can be used to factor faster than brute forcing. Some of them are Trial division, Pollard's rho, Pollard's p-1, Quadratic sieve, elliptic curve factorization, Random square factoring, Number field sieve, etc. A Prime number is a positive integer and is divisible only by itself and 1. Prime numbers are found With primality testing; an algorithm which tests a probable prime for primality. If primality testing returns false prime numbers the cryptographic algorithm may be insecure (or will not function correctly). RSA depends on prime numbers in key generation. It also uses strong primes, numbers
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whose factors of the prime are also primes. The RSA algorithm: Key generation: 1)Select random prime numbers p and q, and check that p != q 2)Compute modulus n = pq 3)Compute phi = (p - 1)(q - 1) 4)Select public exponent e, 1 < e < phi such that gcd(e,phi) = 1 5)Compute private exponent d = e^-1 mod phi 6)Public key is {n, e}, private key is d Encryption: c = m*e mod n, decryption: m = c*d mod n The selected public exponent e, which is used as public key with n. It is used to encrypt messages and to verify digital signatures. The e is stored for later with n. The e is usually small number but it can be 1 < e < phi . The e must be relatively prime to phi , hence gcd(e, phi ) = 1. (gcd = greatest common divisor, using the Euclidean algorithm) The private exponent d, is the actual RSA private key. The d must not be disclosed at any time or the security of the RSA is compromised. The d is found by computing the multiplicative inverse d = e^-1 mod phi . The extended Euclidean algorithm is commonly used to compute inverses. The d exponent is used to decrypt messages and to compute digital signatures. Implementations try to find as small d as possible to make decryption faster. This is fine as long as it is assured that d is about the same size as n. If it is only one quarter of size it is not considered safe to be used. It is possible to find a smaller d by using lcm(p-1,q-1) instead of phi (lcm = least common multiple, lcm(p-1,q-1) = phi /gcd(p-1,q-1) ). Example of RSA with small numbers: p = 47, q = 71, compute n = p*q = 3337 Compute phi = 46 * 70 = 3220 Let e be 79, compute d = 79-1 mod 3220 = 1019
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Public key is n and e, private key d, discard p and q. Encrypt message m = 688, 68879 mod 3337 = 1570 = c. Decrypt message c = 1570, 15701019 mod 3337 = 688 = m.
Program 6: Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data. #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> int gcd(int a,int b) { int c; while(a!=b) { if(a<b) { c=a;a=b;b=c; } a-=b; } return a; } int mod(int m,int e,int n) { int a=1; while(e) { a=(a*m)%n; e--; } return a;
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} int main() { int p,q,n,e,m,c,d,x,z; int en[100],de[100],j=0; printf("\nenter the value of p & q\n"); scanf("%d%d",&p,&q); n=p*q; z=(p-1)*(q-1); for(e=1;e<n;e++) { if(gcd(e,z)==1) { en[j]=e; printf(" %d",en[j++]); } } printf("\nchoose e\n"); scanf("%d",&e); if(gcd(e,z)!=1) { printf("\nthe value not from list\n"); exit(0); } printf("enter the character to be encrypted:\n"); scanf("%d",&m); printf("before encryption:%d\n",m); c=mod(m,e,n); printf("after encryption:%d\n",c); for(d=0;d<n;d++) { if((d*e)%z==1) { de[j]=d; printf(" %d",de[j++]); } }
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printf("\nchoose D\n"); scanf("%d",&d); x=mod(c,d,n); printf("after decryption=%d\n",x); return 0; }
Output: Enter the value of p& q: 3 5 1 3 5 7 Choose e: 7 Enter the character to be encrypted: 3 Before encryption : 3 After encryption: 12 7 Choose d: 7 After decryption : 3
HAMMING CODES Overview: Developed by 1947 Richard. W. Hamming for detecting and correcting single bit errors in transmitted data. This technique requires that three parity bits (or check bits) be transmitted with every four data bits. The algorithm is
called a (7, 4) code, because it requires seven bits to encoded four bits of data. Theoretical Concepts : Background Concepts Required: 1. matrix multiplication 2. modulo 2 arithmetic 3. parity. Parity:A parity bit is an extra bit that forces a binary string to have a specific parity. Two types: 1.Even(Even number of 1's i.e., the modulo 2 sum of the bits is 0) 2.Odd (Odd number of 1's i.e., the modulo 2 sum of the bits is 1) The table below lists all possible three bit values and value of a parity bit required to create a four bit sequence with even parity. 3 Bit String Parity Bit Verification 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0+0+0+0 0+0+1+1 0+1+0+1 0+1+1+0 1+0+0+1 1+0+1+0 1+0+1+0 1+1+1+1 = = = = = = = = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 1. Even Parity It is very common for communication protocols to specify that a block of bits will be transmitted with a specific parity. If a block of data arrives at its intended destination with a parity other than the specified parity, it must be the case that at least one of the bits has been corrupted. A single parity bit is not sufficient to identify an even number of bits with errors, nor is it sufficient to allow the receiver to correct an error. Hamming codes use multiple parity bits to allow for error correction.
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Encoding Traditional Hamming codes are (7, 4) codes, encoding four bits of data into seven bit blocks (a Hamming code word). The extra three bits are parity bits. Each of the three parity bits are parity for three of the four data bits, and no two parity bits are for the same three data bits. All of the parity bits are even parity. Example: Given: data bits d1, d2, d3, and d4 A (7, 4) Hamming code may define parity bits p1, p2, and p3 as p1 = d2 + d3 + d4 p2 = d1 + d3 + d4 p3 = d1 + d2 + d4 There's a fourth equation for a parity bit that may be used in Hamming codes: p4 = d1 + d2 + d3 Valid Hamming codes may use any three of the above four parity bit definitions. Valid Hamming codes may also place the parity bits in any location within the block of 7 data and parity bits. Two Hamming codes with different parity bits or parity bits in a different bit position are considered equivalent. They will produce different results, but they are still Hamming codes. One method for transforming four bits of data into a seven bit Hamming code word is to use a 47 generator matrix [G]. Define d to be the 14 vector [d1 d2 d3 d4] It's possible to create a 47 generator matrix [G] such that the product modulo 2 of d and [G] (d[G]) is the desired 17 Hamming code word. Here's how it's done: Step 1: Represent each data bit with a column vector as follows: |1| d1 = | 0 | |0| |0|
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|0| d2 = | 1 | |0| |0| |0| d3 = | 0 | |1| |0| |0| d4 = | 0 | |0| |1| Step 2:Represent each parity bit with a column vector containing a 1 in the row corresponding to each data bit included in the computation and a zero in all other rows. Using the parity bit definitions from the example above: |0| p1 = | 1 | |1| |1| |1| p2 = | 0 | |1| |1| |1| p3 = | 1 | |0| |1|
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Step 3:Arrange the column vectors from the previous steps into a 47 matrix such that the columns are ordered to match their corresponding bits in a code word. Using the vectors from the previous steps, the following will produce code words of the form [p1 p2 p3 d1 d2 d3 d4] |0111000| G= |1010100| |1100010| |1110001| Arranging the columns in any other order will just change the positions of bits in the code word. Example: Encode the data value 1010 using the Hamming code defined by the matrix G (above). | (1 0) + (0 1) + (1 1) + (0 1) | |1| | (1 1) + (0 0) + (1 1) + (0 1) | |0| |0111000 | |1| |1010 | |1010100 | =|1| |1100010 | |0| |1110001 | |1| |0| So 1010 encodes to 1011010. Equivalent Hamming codes represented by different generator matrices will produce different results. = | (1 1) + (0 1) + (1 0) + (0 1) | | (1 1) + (0 0) + (1 0) + (0 0) | | (1 0) + (0 1) + (1 0) + (0 0) | | (1 0) + (0 0) + (1 1) + (0 0) | | (1 0) + (0 0) + (1 0) + (0 1) |
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Decoding In a world without errors decoding a Hamming code word would be very easy. Just throw out the parity bits. The encoding example produced a 7 bit code word. Its parity bits are 101 and its data bits are 1010. If you receive a 1011010, just decode it as 1010. But what happens if you receive a code word with an error and one or more of the parity bits are wrong. Suppose the Hamming code defined by the matrix G in the example above is being used and the code word 1011011 is received. How is that word decoded? The first step is to check the parity bits to determine if there is an error. Arithmetically, parity may be checked as follows: p1 = d2 + d3 + d4 = 0 + 1 + 1 = 0 p2 = d1 + d3 + d4 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 p3 = d1 + d2 + d4 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 0 In this case every parity bit is wrong. p1, p2, and p3 should have been 010, but we received 101. Parity may also be validated using matrix operations. A 37 parity check matrix [H] may be constructed such that row 1 contains 1s in the position of the first parity bit and all of the data bits that are included in its parity calculation. Row 2 contains 1s in the position of the second parity bit and all of the data bits that are included in its parity calculation. Row 3 contains 1s in the position of the third parity bit and all of the data bits that are included in its parity calculation. Example: Using the code from example above, the matrix H may be defined as follows: H= |1000111| |0101011| |0011101|
Multiplying the 37 matrix [H] by a 71 matrix representing the encoded data produces a 31 matrix called the "syndrome". There are two useful proprieties of the syndrome. If the syndrome is all zeros, the encoded data is
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error free. If the syndrome has a non-zero value, flipping the encoded bit that is in the position of the column matching the syndrome will result in a valid code word. Example: Using the parity check matrix from the example above we can correct and verify the code word 1011011. |1| |0| | 1000111 | | 1 | |(11)+(00)+(01)+(01)+(10)+(11) +(11) | | 1| | 0101011 | | 1 | = |(00)+(10)+(01)+(11)+(00)+(11)+(11) | = | 1| | 0011101 | | 0 | |(01)+(00)+(11)+(11)+(10)+(01)+(11) | | 1| |1| |1| A column of all 1s is not the column of all 0s, so there is a parity error. Looking back at the matrix [H], you will see that the seventh column is all 1s, so the seventh bit is the bit that has an error. Changing the seventh bit produces the code word 1011010. |1| |0| |1|
|1000111| |0| |0101011| = |0| |0011101| |0|
|(11)+(00)+(01)+(01)+(10)+(11)+(10) |
| 1 | = |(00)+(10)+(01)+(11)+(00)+(11)+(10) | |0| |1| |0| |(01)+(00)+(11)+(11)+(10)+(01)+(10) |
Sure enough 1011010 is a valid code word. As I stated at the top of this section remove the parity bits to get the encoded value. In this case 1011011
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was likely transmitted as 1011010, which encodes 1010.
Program 7: Write a program for Hamming Code generation for error detection and correction. #include<stdio.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<math.h> int main() { int i,j; char data[4]; int d1[5],d2[5],d3[5],d4[5]; int p1[5],p2[5],p3[5]; int gmatrix[4][8]; int encode[7]={0,0,0,0,0,0,0}; int edata[7]={0,0,0,0,0,0,0}; int errdig; int syn[3]= {0,0,0}; int hmatrix[3][7] = { 1,0,0,0,1,1,1, 0,1,0,1,0,1,1, 0,0,1,1,1,0,1 }; int choice; system("clear"); for(;;) { printf("\n 1.ENCODE ");
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printf("\n 2.DECODE "); printf("\n 3.EXIT "); printf("\n Enter your choice : "); scanf("%d",&choice); switch(choice) { case 1: printf("\n Enter 4 data bits\n"); scanf("%s",data); for(i=0;i<4;i++) { d1[i]=d2[i]=d3[i]=d4[i]=0; p1[i]=p2[i]=p3[i]=1; } d1[0]=d2[1]=d3[2]=d4[3]=1; p1[0]=p2[1]=p3[2]=0; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][0]=p1[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][1]=p2[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][2]=p3[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][3]=d1[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][4]=d2[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][5]=d3[i]; for(i=0;i<4;i++) gmatrix[i][6]=d4[i]; printf("\n The generator matrix is\n\n"); for(i=0;i<4;i++) { for(j=0;j<7;j++) { printf("%d\t",gmatrix[i][j]); } printf("\n"); }
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for(i=0;i<7;i++) for(j=0;j<4;j++) encode[i]=encode[i] + ( data[j] * gmatrix[j][i]); printf("\n the encoded data is \n"); for(i=0;i<7;i++) { encode[i]=encode[i] % 2; } for(i=0;i<7;i++) printf("%d",encode[i]); break; case 2: printf("\n enter the encoded data \n"); for(i=0;i<7;i++) scanf("%d",&edata[i]); for(i=0;i<3;i++) for(j=0;j<7;j++) syn[i]=syn[i] + ( hmatrix[i][j] * edata[j] ); for(i=0;i<3;i++) syn[i]=syn[i] % 2; errdig = 4 * syn[0] + 2 * syn[1] + 1 * syn[2]; if (errdig == 0) printf("\n Error free data \n"); else { printf("\n error in the bit number %d\n",errdig); errdig--; if(edata[errdig] == 1) edata[errdig]=0; else edata[errdig]=1; } printf("\n the actaual data error free data : "); for(i=3;i<7;i++) printf("%d",edata[i]); break; default : exit(0); } }
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} Output: cc prgm8.c ./a.out 1.Encode 2.Decode 3.Exit Enter your choice : 1 Enter the 4 bits : 1101 The generator matrix is 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
The encoded data is: 0011101 1.Encode 2.Decode 3.Exit Enter your choice : 2 Enter the encoded data : 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 Error free data The actual data error free data: 1101 1.Encode 2.Decode 3.Exit Enter your choice : 3 LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM The leaky-bucket implementation is used to control the rate at which traffic is sent to the network. A leaky bucket provides a mechanism by which bursty traffic can be shaped to present a steady stream of traffic to the network, as opposed to traffic with erratic bursts of low-volume and highvolume flows.
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Traffic analogy An appropriate analogy for the leaky bucket is a scenario in which four lanes of automobile traffic converge into a single lane. A regulated admission interval into the single lane of traffic flow helps the traffic move. The benefit of this approach is that traffic flow into the major arteries (the network) is predictable and controlled. The major liability is that when the volume of traffic is vastly greater than the bucket size, in conjunction with the drainage-time interval, traffic backs up in the bucket beyond bucket capacity and is discarded.
The Leaky-bucket algorithm
The algorithm can be conceptually understood as follows:
Arriving packets (network layer PDUs) are placed in a bucket with a hole in the bottom. The bucket can queue at most b bytes. If a packet arrives when the
bucket is full, the packet is discarded. Packets drain through the hole in the bucket, into the network, at a constant rate of r bytes per second, thus smoothing traffic bursts.
The size b of the bucket is limited by the available memory of the system. Sometimes the leaky bucket and token algorithms are lumped together under the same name.
Program 8: Write a program for Congestion control using the leaky bucket algorithm. #include<stdio.h> #define min(x,y) ((x) < (y) ? (x) : (y))
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#define MAX 25 int main() { int cap, oprt, nsec, cont, i=0,dr=0, inp[MAX]={0}, ch, x; printf("\n\nLEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM\n"); printf("\nEnter bucket size : "); scanf("%d",&cap); printf("\nEnter output rate (no..of pkts/sec) : "); scanf("%d",&oprt); do{ ",i+1); printf("\nEnter the no..of packets entering at second %d :
scanf("%d",&inp[i++]); printf("Enter 1 to insert packets or 0 to quit : "); scanf("%d",&ch); } while(ch); nsec=i; printf("\nSecond : Packets sent : Packets recvd : In bucket: Dropped\n"); for(cont=i=0; cont || (i<nsec); i++) { printf(" (%d) :",i+1); printf(" (%d)\t: ",/*nsec?*/inp[i]/*:0*/); printf(" (%d)\t: ",min(cont+inp[i],oprt)); if((x=cont+inp[i]-oprt)>0) if(x>cap) { cont=cap; dr=x-cap; }
else { cont=x;
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dr=0; } else cont=0; printf(" %d\t:",cont); printf(" %d\n",dr); } return 0; } Output : Leaky bucket algorithm: Enter bucket size: 3 Enter the output rate(No. of packets/sec): 2 Enter the no. of packets sent at second 1: 6 Enter 1 to insert packets or 0 to quit:0 Second : packet sent : packet recvd : (1) (6) (2) (2) (0) (2) (3) (0) (1)
In bucket : (3) (1) (0)
Dropped (1) (0) (0)
Viva Questions
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1. What are functions of different layers in OSI And TCP/IP model?

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Differentiate between TCP/IP Layers and OSI Layers Why header is required? What is the use of adding header and trailer to frames? What is encapsulation? Why fragmentation requires? What is MTU? Which layer imposes MTU? Differentiate between flow control and congestion control. Differentiate between Point-to-Point Connection and End-to-End connections. 11. Which are protocols running in different layers? 12. What is Protocol Stack? 13. Differentiate between TCP and UDP. 14. Differentiate between Connectionless and connection oriented connection. 15. Why frame sorting is required? 16. What is meant by subnet? 17. What is meant by Gateway? 18. What is an IP address? 19. What is MAC address? 20. Why IP address is required when we have MAC address? 21. What is meant by port? 22. What are ephemerical port number and well known port numbers? 23. What is a socket? 24. What are the parameters of socket()? 25. Describe bind(), listen(), accept(),connect(), send() and recv(). 26. What are system calls? Mention few of them. 27. What is IPC? Name three techniques. 28. Explain mkfifo(), open(), close() with parameters. 29. What is meant by file descriptor? 30. What is meant by traffic shaping? 31. How do you classify congestion control algorithms? 32. Differentiate between Leaky bucket and Token bucket. 33. How do you implement Leaky bucket? 34. How do you generate busty traffic? 35. What is the polynomial used in CRC-CCITT? 36. What are the other error detection algorithms? 37. What is difference between CRC and Hamming code? 38. Why Hamming code is called 7,4 code? 39. What is odd parity and even parity? 40. What is meant by syndrome? 41. What is generator matrix? 42. What is spanning tree? 43. Where Pirms algorithm does finds its use in Networks? 44. Differentiate between Prims and Kruskals algorithm. 45. What are Routing algorithms? 46. How do you classify routing algorithms? Give examples for each. 47. What are drawbacks in distance vector algorithm? 48. How routers update distances to each of its neighbor? 49. How do you overcome count to infinity problem? 50. What is cryptography?
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51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79.
How do you classify cryptographic algorithms? What is public key? What is private key? What are key, ciphertext and plaintext? What is simulation? What are advantages of simulation? Differentiate between Simulation and Emulation. What is meant by router? What is meant by bridge? What is meant by switch? What is meant by hub? Differentiate between route, bridge, switch and hub. What is ping and telnet? What is FTP? What is BER? What is meant by congestion window? What is BSS? What is incoming throughput and outgoing throughput? What is collision? How do you generate multiple traffics across different sender-receiver pairs? How do you setup Ethernet LAN? What is meant by mobile host? What is meant by NCTUns? What are dispatcher, coordinator and nctunsclient? Name few other Network simulators Differentiate between logical and physical address. Which address gets affected if a system moves from one place to another place? What is ICMP? What are uses of ICMP? Name few. Which layer implements security for data?
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Guidelines For installation of NCTUns Network Simulator

Follow the following steps carefully, Please don't skip any steps that have been mentioned below Install Linux Recommended Fedora 12 with dvd(gcc compiler should be installed if it not installed after fedora installation) After installation Boot into Linux as root. Copy the .tgz installation file of NCTUns that you got from college to the folder /bin/local Please don't change any folder name in this folder that is created after unzipping the above file. Dont even change the Case of the folder that is created Now unzip the .tgz file by opening the terminal and changing the directory to /bin/local by the command :[root@localhost ~] cd /bin/local To unzip use the following command:[root@localhost local] tar xvzf [the file name].tar (Note there is no '-' before xvzf) This will create a folder called NCTUns in the directory /bin/local... 5. Now disable the Secure Linux option by running the following command :[root@localhost local] vi /etc/selinux/config When the file opens, there is a line similar to -- SELINUX=enforcing Change the "enforcing" to "disabled" (Note without quotes)
1.
2.
3. 4.
6.
From the directory /bin/local change the current working directory to NCTUns by following command :[root@localhost local] cd NCTUns Now from here execute the installation shell script that will do the required compilations and settings for you:[root@localhost local] ./install.sh During this part it will ask for installation of tunnel files. Please type yes and Enter to continue
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If the installation is successful, it will display the success message at the end. Now restart your computer. You will find a new entry in GRUB Menu "NCTUns kernel login". Boot into Linux using this entry. before using simulator, please execute the following command [root@localhost ~] iptables -F Run the simulator using three commands where each command should be executed in different window. [root@localhost ~] dispatcher [root@localhost ~] coordinator
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[root@localhost ~] nctunsclient 11. In the NCTUns window Settings Dispatcher. Provide the username and password of the user account u created in step 11. Then Click OK.
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Computer Networks Lab Manual

COMPUTER NETWORKS LAB MANUAL

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

2. Write a program for frame sorting technique used in buffers.

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

Steps to execute Part-A:

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

Sender:Stcp p 7000 l 1024 1.0.1.3

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Computer Networks Lab Manual

The need to use a 16-bit CRC instead of a 32-bit CRC is as follows :

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

FRAME SORTING TECHNIQUE USED IN BUFFERS

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Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

DISTANCE VECTOR ALGORITHM D (y) = min{c(x,y) + D (y), c(x,z) + D (y)}

x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 Department Of Information Science and Engineering y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0 from from

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual

scanf("%d",&n); path(n); fsp(n); disp(n); }

Department Of Information Science and Engineering

Computer Networks Lab Manual